The origins of early modern experimental philosophy

This paper argues that early modern experimental philosophy emerged as the dominant member of a pair of methods in natural philosophy, the speculative versus the experimental, and that this pairing derives from an overarching distinction between speculative and operative philosophy that can be ultimately traced back to Aristotle. The paper examines the traditional classification of natural philosophy as a speculative discipline from the Stagirite to the seventeenth century; medieval and early modern attempts to articulate a scientia experimentalis; and the tensions in the classification of natural magic and mechanics that led to the introduction of an operative part of natural philosophy in the writings of Francis Bacon and John Johnston. The paper concludes with a summary of the salient discontinuities between the experimental/speculative distinction of the mid-seventeenth century and its predecessors and a statement of the developments that led to the ascendance of experimental philosophy from the 1660s

The Principled Enlightenment: Condillac, d'Alembert and Principle Minimalism

Abstract: There are many epithets for the European Enlightenment: ‘Radical Enlightenment’, ‘Pragmatic Enlightenment’, ‘Democratic Enlightenment’ and so on. This paper argues for one more, namely, ‘Principled Enlightenment’. It shows just how central the notion of principles was to many of the leading thinkers of the eighteenth century, paying special attention to the views of Etienne Bonnot de Condillac and Jean Le Rond d’Alembert. Principles are at the heart of their respective philosophical projects. Not only are their writings against systems predicated on a particular theory about how the principles of the sciences are discovered, but, it is argued, both philosophes are committed to a form of Principle Minimalism, whereby the fewer principles a science has the more fertile those principles are. And both believe that they have actually discovered just such a fertile principle, Condillac in his study of the origins of knowledge and d’Alembert in rational mechanics. Together these views of Condillac and d’Alembert are illustrative of the fact that there was indeed a principled Enlightenment

Locke, the Quakers and Enthusiasm

This paper argues that Locke’s interactions with the Quakers and his reflections on their doctrines and behaviour, provide the salient background for understanding the content and polemical orientation of the chapter on enthusiasm in An Essay concerning Human Understanding. The terms of reference and key features of the vocabulary of the chapter “Of Enthusiasm” that Locke added to the fourth edition of the Essay, derive from the Quakers and from Locke’s critical reflections on their doctrine of immediate inspiration. While Locke acknowledged that the phenomenon was to be found among other religious groups, it was the Quakers whom Locke had in mind when he formulated his philosophical critique of enthusiasm

Relationship between antihypertensive medications and cognitive impairment: Part I. review of human studies and clinical trials

Purpose of review: There is an established association between hypertension and increased risk of poor cognitive performance and dementia including Alzheimer’s disease; however, associations between antihypertensive medications (AHMs) and dementia risk are less consistent. An increased interest in AHM has resulted in expanding publications; however, none of the recent reviews are comprehensive. Our extensive review includes 15 observational and randomized controlled trials (RCTs) published over the last 5 years, assessing the relationship between AHM and cognitive impairment. Recent findings: All classes of AHM showed similar result patterns in human studies with the majority of study results reporting point estimates below one and only a small number of studies (N = 15) reporting statistically significant results in favor of a specific class. Summary: Only a small number of studies reported statistically significant results in favor of a specific class of AHM. Methodological limitations of the studies prevent definitive conclusions. Further work is now needed to evaluate the class of AHM and cognitive outcomes in future RCTs, with a particular focus on the drugs with the promising results in both animals and human observational studies

Development of the CogDrisk tool to assess risk factors for dementia

Introduction: We aimed to develop a comprehensive risk assessment tool for Alzheimer's disease (AD), vascular dementia (VaD), and any dementia, that will be applicable in high and low resource settings. Method: Risk factors which can easily be assessed in most settings, and their effect sizes, were identified from an umbrella review, or estimated using meta-analysis where new data were available. Results: Seventeen risk/protective factors met criteria for the algorithm to estimate risk for any dementia including age, sex, education, hypertension, midlife obesity, midlife high cholesterol, diabetes, insufficient physical activity, depression, traumatic brain injury, atrial fibrillation, smoking, social engagement, cognitive engagement, fish consumption (diet), stroke, and insomnia. A version for AD excluded atrial fibrillation and insomnia due to insufficient evidence and included pesticide exposure. There was insufficient evidence for a VaD risk score. Discussion: Validation of the tool on external datasets is planned. The assessment tool will assist with implementing risk reduction guidelines

A longitudinal examination of the relationship between cannabis use and cognitive function in mid-life adults

Background: The relationship between cannabis use and cognitive function in mid-life has rarely been examined despite verbal learning deficits in young adults. Method: A longitudinal cohort study of 1,897 Australians recruited at 40–46 years of age and followed up 4 years (94%) and 8 years (87%) later. Random effects regression was used to assess within- and between-person associations between cannabis use and cognitive function across waves of data, and examine whether age-related changes in cognitive performance were modified by cannabis use. The first list of the California Verbal Learning Test (immediate and delayed recall), Symbol Digit Modality Test, Digit Backwards, simple and choice reaction time tasks, were administered at each wave. The Spot-the-Word test was used to assess premorbid verbal ability. Self-reported cannabis use in the past year (no use, < weekly use, ≥ weekly use) was assessed at each wave. Findings: Participants who used cannabis ≥ weekly had worse immediate recall (b = −0.68, p = 0.014) and showed a trend toward worse delayed recall (b = −0.55, p = 0.062) compared to non-users after adjusting for correlates of cannabis use and premorbid verbal ability. These effects were due to between-person differences. There were no significant within-person associations between cannabis use and recall, nor was there evidence of greater cognitive decline in cannabis users with age. Conclusions: Mid-life cannabis users had poorer verbal recall than non-users, but this was not related to their current level of cannabis use, and cannabis use was not associated with accelerated cognitive decline

A Scoping Survey to Inform Design of Digital Dementia Risk Reduction Interventions for Adults Concerned about their Cognitive Health

Background: Digital dementia risk reduction interventions are cost-effective and scalable. However, it is unknown how they are perceived by people already experiencing cognitive concerns or decline. Objective: To understand the current use, interest, and preferences for online learning courses and interest in learning about factors influencing brain health and dementia risk among adults ≥45. To explore potential differences between individuals experiencing cognitive concerns and those without. Methods: Adults aged 45 and older completed a survey on technology use and healthy ageing (n = 249, Mean age = 65.6, 76.3% female). The Memory Assessment Clinic-Questionnaire was used to assess subjective memory decline, and 153 participants met the study criteria for cognitive concerns (≥25). Results: Almost all participants (98.4%) reported using two or more digital devices, and 51.8% reported increasing device usage following COVID-19. Most (92.1%) were interested in learning about healthy living and memory within an online course, and over 80% indicated a high interest in learning about dementia risk factors. People with cognitive concerns were more likely to report using a 'routine or system' to aid memory than people without (82.4% versus 62.9%, p = 0.001). However, no significant difference was found in technology use, course preferences, or interest in learning about different risk factors. Conclusions: We conclude that adults 45 years and over are interested in online methods for learning about brain health and offer unique insights into adapting dementia prevention programs for cognitive concerns

The impact of mild cognitive impairment on decision-making under explicit risk conditions: Evidence from the Personality and Total Health (PATH) Through Life longitudinal study

Objective: Previous research has indicated that cognition and executive function are associated with decision-making, however the impact of mild cognitive impairment (MCI) on decision-making under explicit risk conditions is unclear. This cross-sectional study examined the impact of MCI, and MCI subtypes, on decision-making on the Game of Dice Task (GDT), among a cohort of older adults. Method: Data from 245 older adult participants (aged 72-78 years) from the fourth assessment of the Personality and Total Health Through Life study were analyzed. A diagnostic algorithm identified 103 participants with MCI, with subtypes of single-domain amnestic MCI (aMCI-single; n = 38), multi-domain amnestic MCI (aMCI-multi; n = 31), and non-amnestic MCI (n = 33), who were compared with an age-, sex-, education-, and income-matched sample of 142 cognitively unimpaired older adults. Decision-making scores on the GDT (net score, single number choices, and strategy changes) were compared between groups using nonparametric tests. Results: Participants with MCI showed impaired performance on the GDT, with higher frequencies of single number choices and strategy changes. Analyses comparing MCI subtypes indicated that the aMCI-multi subtype showed increased frequency of single number choices compared to cognitively unimpaired participants. Across the sample of participants, decision-making scores were associated with measures of executive function (cognitive flexibility and set shifting). Conclusion: MCI is associated with impaired decision-making performance under explicit risk conditions. Participants with impairments in multiple domains of cognition showed the clearest impairments. The GDT may have utility in discriminating between MCI subtypes

Testing times for dementia: a community survey identifying contemporary barriers to risk reduction and screening

Background: Advances in pharmacological and non-pharmacological dementia interventions may mean future dementia prevention incorporates a combination of targeted screening and lifestyle modifications. Elucidating potential barriers which may prevent community engagement with dementia prevention initiatives is important to maximise the accessibility and feasibility of these initiatives across the lifespan. Methods: Six hundred seven adults aged over 18 years completed a 54-item, multiple-choice survey exploring contemporary attitudes towards, and barriers to, dementia risk reduction and screening relative to other common health conditions. Participants were sourced from Australia’s largest, paid, data analytics service (ORIMA). Results: Finances (p =.009), poor motivation (p =.043), and time (p ≤.0001) emerged as significant perceived barriers to dementia risk reduction behaviours. Lack of time was more likely to be reported by younger, relative to older, participants (p ≤.0001), while females were more likely than males to report financial (p =.019) and motivational (p =.043) factors. Binary logistic regression revealed willingness to undertake dementia testing modalities was significantly influenced by gender (genetic testing, p =.012; saliva, p =.038, modifiable risk factors p =.003), age (cognitive testing, p ≤.0001; blood, p =.010), and socio-economic group (retinal imaging, p =.042; modifiable risk-factor screening, p =.019). Over 65% of respondents felt adequately informed about risk reduction for at least one non-dementia health condition, compared to 30.5% for dementia. Conclusions: This study found perceived barriers to dementia risk reduction behaviours, and the willingness to engage in various dementia testing modalities, was significantly associated with socio-demographic factors across the lifespan. These findings provide valuable insight regarding the accessibility and feasibility of potential methods for identifying those most at risk of developing dementia, as well as the need to better promote and support wide-scale engagement in dementia risk reduction behaviours across the lifespan

Cognitive benefits of social dancing and walking in old age: the Dancing Mind randomized controlled trial

Background: A physically active lifestyle has the potential to prevent cognitive decline and dementia, yet the optimal type of physical activity/exercise remains unclear. Dance is of special interest as it complex sensorimotor rhythmic activity with additional cognitive, social, and affective dimensions. Objectives: To determine whether dance benefits executive function more than walking, an activity that is simple and functional. Methods: Two-arm randomized controlled trial among community-dwelling older adults. The intervention group received 1 h of ballroom dancing twice weekly over 8 months (~69 sessions) in local community dance studios. The control group received a combination of a home walking program with a pedometer and optional biweekly group-based walking in local community park to facilitate socialization. Main outcomes: Executive function tests: processing speed and task shift by the Trail Making Tests, response inhibition by the Stroop Color-Word Test, working memory by the Digit Span Backwards test, immediate and delayed verbal recall by the Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test, and visuospatial recall by the Brief Visuospatial Memory Test (BVST). Results: One hundred and fifteen adults (mean 69.5 years, SD 6.4) completed baseline and delayed baseline (3 weeks apart) before being randomized to either dance (n = 60) or walking (n = 55). Of those randomized, 79 (68%) completed the follow-up measurements (32 weeks from baseline). In the dance group only, “non-completers” had significantly lower baseline scores on all executive function tests than those who completed the full program. Intention-to-treat analyses showed no group effect. In a random effects model including participants who completed all measurements, adjusted for baseline score and covariates (age, education, estimated verbal intelligence, and community), a between-group effect in favor of dance was noted only for BVST total learning (Cohen’s D Effect size 0.29, p = 0.07) and delayed recall (Cohen’s D Effect size = 0.34, p = 0.06). Conclusion: The superior potential of dance over walking on executive functions of cognitively healthy and active older adults was not supported. Dance improved one of the cognitive domains (spatial memory) important for learning dance. Controlled trials targeting inactive older adults and of a higher dose may produce stronger effects, particularly for novice dancers. Trial registration: Australian and New Zealand Clinical Trials Register (ACTRN12613000782730)