Sustainable tourism types

Tourism development must be based on sustainability criteria, be long term bearable economically and ethically and socially equitable for the local populations of the destinations. Tourism forms identified by the literature as being “sustainable” are numerous: ecological tourism (ecotourism), green tourism, soft, rural tourism and agrotourism, community tourism, solidarity and responsible tourism, all these opposing to the traditional, mass tourism. According to some specialists only tourism in natural reservations or national parks is considered to be ecological. A larger concept of ecological tourism refers to that form of responsible travel, developed in natural spaces, that contributes to environment protection and local population life conditions improvement and wellbeing. Equitable tourism is a form of sustainable tourism aiming at applying in the tourism sector the principles of equitable commerce, respecting a series of criteria, that focus on respect of the residents and their life style, as well as sustainability of tourism progress for local communities. Solidarity tourism is about establishing a dialog, solidarity relationship between tourists and their hosts.tourism, sustainable, ecotourism, equitable, solidarity

Unknown suns: László Hudec, Antonín Raymond and the making of modern architecture in Eastern Asia

La arquitectura es un reflejo directo de la cultura, siempre cambiando, con el fin de adaptarse a las necesidades de la época. La sociedad china sufrió cambios inesperados, a lo largo de los fines del siglo XIX y principios del XX, marcada por las invasiones de los poderes occidentales, La Primera y La Segunda Guerras Mundiales, rebeliones, derrumbes de viejos regímenes y de la fundación de la Nueva China en 1949. En comparación con China, Japón se enfrenta a constantes problemas de terremotos, además de los ya mencionados. La mezcla constante entre "nuevo y viejo", fue la principal característica de la Asia oriental contemporánea, la Arquitectura china y la japonesa. Al referirse a lo "nuevo", nuevos tipologías arquitectónicas sin precedentes aparecieron: consulados, iglesias, escuelas para niñas, bancos, hospitales, nuevos tipos de residencias, complejos industriales y edificios de entretenimiento. Para todos estos tipos de edificios, "nuevos" materiales, técnicas de construcción, métodos y equipos tuvieron que ser utilizados e inventados (estructuras de hormigón o de acero reforzado), un cambio sustancial de las estructuras tradicionales típicas chinas y japoneses de madera y del trabajo manual. El objetivo fundamental de esta Tesis será poner de relieve la extraordinaria contribución de Hudec y Raymond a la Arquitectura Moderna de Asia Oriental, y la razón de que esta influencia perdure hoy en día. Para ello, los fundamentos de la investigación a desarrollar, parten de la gran ocasión de conocer las raíces de la Arquitectura Moderna en Shanghái y en Japón, en general, y sobre todo, tratar la biografía de grandes arquitectos, poco conocidos, que fueron los más importantes durante décadas para los centros económicos de Asia Oriental. Este tema abre diferentes caminos entre los cuales se divide la tesis – historia, composición y urbanismo. Su creatividad y la apertura hacia lo nuevo, hacia la modernidad, que ofrecieron, tanto a László Hudec como Antonín Raymond, un lugar de honor bien merecido entre los arquitectos que dejaron su huella en las ciudades de Asia. El título "Unknown Suns / Bajo un sol desconocido" se refiere al hecho de que tanto Hudec como Raymond nunca tuvieron la ocasión de trabajar bajo un sol conocido, pues por diversas vicisitudes bélicas, se vieron forzados a instalarse en Asia Oriental, y pronto, comprendieron que su momento estribaba en adaptar las innovaciones de la Arquitectura Moderna que habían conocido en Europa a la incipiente pero firme actividad arquitectónica de los grandes puertos chinos y japoneses. 3 El primer capítulo, la "Introducción General y Esquema de la Tesis", describe la idea principal, la motivación, los objetivos y la metodología utilizada para lograr el propósito de la tesis. El segundo capítulo, "Investigación e Historia", es teórico, centrado principalmente en el estudio y el análisis de la historia y el urbanismo de las grandes ciudades de Asia oriental. El proceso de modernización de Shanghái y Tokio estaba directamente relacionado con la aparición de la Arquitectura Moderna. El tercer capítulo "Trayectoria de la vida, desde Europa a Asia" es como una introducción al objetivo principal de la tesis, describiendo a ambos arquitectos, László Hudec y Antonín Raymond, sus experiencias en sus países de origen, los años de guerra y sus trayectorias de Europa a Asia Oriental. En este capítulo, un breve análisis del movimiento arquitectónico y arquitectos extranjeros en Shanghái y Tokio era indispensable para el siguiente estudio. Aunque los dos arquitectos tenían un origen y una formación similar, sus trayectorias en la vida los llevó a los dos muy lejos, al Lejano Oriente. China y Japón, aparentemente iguales, acabaron por tener bastante diferente influencia sobre los dos. El entorno local mezclado con su personalidad, forma de pensar y preferencias estilísticas dejaron una marca definitiva en su Arquitectura. Similitudes entre los dos se encontraron cuando Hudec se acercó a la Arquitectura Moderna en su último período. En los primeros años pasados en Asia Oriental, ambos arquitectos habían trabajado por y bajo orientación diferente: Raymond por Frank Lloyd Wright y Hudec en la oficina de Rowland Curry. Estas primeras colaboraciones se describen en el cuarto capítulo de la tesis. A partir de este período, la independencia, el reconocimiento internacional y local pronto siguió (capítulo quinto). Sus encargos provenían de una gran diversidad de clientes. En el sexto y séptimo capítulo se describe la modernidad encontrada en los diseños, tanto de Raymond como de Hudec, logrando el objetivo final de la tesis. Las preferencias estilísticas de Hudec y cada etapa en su carrera de diseño, se corresponden con los que Shanghái estaba atravesando, siempre siguiendo las tendencias locales. Se destacó y se ganó el reconocimiento local e internacional, principalmente en su último período, cuando la Arquitectura Moderna se convirtió en su última elección estilística. El enfoque de Hudec de una paleta tan diversa de estilos arquitectónicos era un reflejo del carácter internacional de Shanghái, debido al entorno multinacional de la ciudad. El modernismo de László Hudec está en su capacidad y complejidad arquitectónica, como un hombre siempre dispuesto a cambiar su vida drásticamente cuando se enfrenta a acontecimientos graves o frente a la necesidad. Adquirió experiencia arquitectónica en Shanghái, no como el líder del movimiento arquitectónico pero siempre dispuesto a seguir y adherirse a las nuevas tendencias y estilos si sus clientes así lo querían, constantemente adaptado a la moda y a la introducción de nuevas tecnologías occidentales en el Lejano 4 Oriente. Ganó experiencia diplomática durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial (prestó ayuda humanitaria, ayudando a sus compatriotas y judíos de los terrores de los nazis) y tuvo experiencia docente en América (dando conferencias sobre temas arqueológicos). Por otro lado, Raymond estaba actuando totalmente diferente. Utilizó el estilo moderno desde el comienzo de su oficina privada. Su objetivo era encontrar el equilibrio perfecto entre el modernismo y las tradiciones locales. Antonín Raymond, se encontró en una relación con Japón, que le ofreció las mejores condiciones para el desarrollo de sus principios: "la honestidad", "simplicidad", "economía", "carácter directo", "funcionalidad" y "naturalidad". La naturaleza va de la mano de la belleza, y la belleza, en las casas japonesas tradicionales, se encontraba en la simplicidad pura. Una parte bastante importante de la tesis trata de la manera en la que sus obras y su fuerte personalidad consiguieron influir en otros arquitectos de gran prestigio. Hudec y Raymond están considerados pioneros de la Arquitectura Moderna porque estuvieron entre los primeros arquitectos occidentales que llegaron a Asia oriental (en un contexto cultural totalmente diferente que su nativo), desarrollándose como arquitectos modernos y logrando orientar, transformar y poner en práctica una nueva forma de pensar y diseñar. Tuvieron la suerte de estar en el lugar correcto en el momento adecuado.Architecture is a direct reflection of culture, always changing in order to fit the necessities of the period. Chinese society underwent unexpected changes, along the late nineteenth century and early twentieth century, marked by the invasions of the Western powers, First and Second World Wars, rebellions, old regimes’ collapses and the founding of New China in 1949. As compared to China, Japan was facing constant earthquake issues, in addition to the ones already mentioned. The constant mixture between “new and old” was the main feature of contemporary Eastern Asia, Chinese and Japanese architecture. Referring to the “new”, unprecedented types of architecture appeared: consulates, churches, schools for girls, banks, hospitals, new type of residences, industrial complexes and entertainment functions. For all these building types, “new” materials, construction techniques, methods and equipment had to be used and invented (reinforced concrete or steel structures), a substantial shift from the typical Chinese and Japanese traditional wooden structures and manual labour. The fundamental objective of this thesis is to highlight the extraordinary contribution of both Hudec and Raymond to Modern Architecture in Eastern Asia, and the reason why this influence remains today. The investigation developed, started from the desire to learn about the roots of modern architecture in Shanghai, China and Tokyo, Japan, in general, and is mainly dedicated to the biography of two great architects, little-known, that were the most important for decades, for the economic centres of Eastern Asia. This topic opens up different ways among which we can divide the thesis - history, composition and urbanism. Their creativity and openness to the new, towards modernity, offered both László Hudec and Antonín Raymond a place of honour, well deserved, among the architects who left their mark on the development of the cities of Asia. The title ‘UNKNOWN SUNS” refers to the fact that neither Hudec nor Raymond had the chance to work under a known sun, as for various military vicissitudes, they were forced to settle in Eastern Asia and soon realized that it was their task and place to adapt innovations of modern architecture they had known in Europe to the incipient but firm architectural activity of the great Chinese and Japanese ports. The first chapter, the “General Introduction and Outline of the Thesis”, describes the main idea, the motivation, objectives and methodology used to achieve the aim of the thesis. 6 The second chapter, “Research and History”, is a theoretical one, mainly focused on studying and analysing the history and urbanism of Eastern Asia large cities. The modernization process Shanghai and Tokyo were going through was directly linked to the appearance of modern architecture. The third chapter “Path of life, From Europe to Asia” is like an introduction to the main objective of the thesis, describing both architects, László Hudec and Antonín Raymond’s early experience in their native countries, the years of war and their trajectories from Europe to Eastern Asia. In this chapter, a short analysis of the architectural movement and foreign architects in Shanghai and Tokyo was indispensable for the following study. Although the two architects were having similar origin and formation, their path of life drove them both far away, in the Far East. China and Japan, apparently alike, ended having quite different influence on the two. The local environment mixed with their personalities, way of thinking and stylistic preferences left a definite mark on their architecture. Close similitudes were found between the two when Hudec approached Modern Architecture in his late period. In the first years spent in Eastern Asia, both architects worked for and under different guidance: Raymond for Frank Lloyd Wright and Hudec in the office of Rowland Curry. These first collaborations are described in the fourth chapter from the thesis. From this period, independence, local and international recognition soon followed (fifth chapter). Their commissions came from a high diversity of clients. The sixth and seventh chapter are describing the modernity found in both Raymond and Hudec’s designs, achieving the aim of the thesis. Hudec ‘went with the flow’, his stylistic preferences and each phase in his design career, correspond with the ones Shanghai was going through. He followed the local trend. He stood out and earned local and international recognition mainly in his last period, when Modern Architecture became his last stylistic choice. Hudec’s approach of such a diverse palette of architectural styles was a reflection of Shanghai’s International character, due to the city’s multinational environment. László Hudec’s modernism lies in his architectural ability and complexity, as a man always ready to change his life drastically when confronted by dire events or facing necessity. He gained architectural experience in Shanghai (not as the leader of the architectural movements but always prepared to follow and to adhere to new trends and styles if his clients were wishing for, constantly adapting to the fashion and introducing latest western technologies in the Far East), diplomatic experience during the Second World War (providing humanitarian aid, helping his compatriots and Jews from the Nazis’ terrors) and teaching experience in America (giving lectures on archaeological themes). On the other side, Raymond was acting totally different. He used modern style since the very beginning of his private office. His aim was to find the perfect balance between modern and local traditions. Antonin Raymond, found himself in a relationship with Japan 7 that offered him the best conditions for developing his principles: “honesty”, “simplicity”, “economy”, “directness”, “functionality” and “naturalness”. Nature goes hand in hand with beauty, and beauty, in the traditional Japanese houses, was to be found in pure simplicity. A significant part of the thesis is focused on the way their projects and strong personalities managed to influence other prestigious architects. Hudec and Raymond are called pioneers of modern architecture because they were among the first western architects who came in eastern Asia (in a completely different cultural context as their native one), developed as modern architects and managed to guide, transform and implement a new way of thinking and designing. They had the luck of being in the right place at the right time

Unknown Suns: László Hudec, Antonin Raymond and the Rising of a Modern Architecture for Eastern Asia

The purpose of this article is to disclose the strenuous efforts of László Hudec in China and Antonin Raymond in Japan and India to create a modern architectural stance by heralding an incipient space syntax. At the turn of the 19th century, for dynastic, political and economic reasons, Eastern Asia had very little modern architecture. It is a surprising fact that, out of happenstance, two European architects, Antonin Raymond and László Hudec, had to intervene to remedy this situation, to the point of becoming 20th century icons in Japan and China. Their fruitful careers spanned over thirty years and included locations like Tamil Nadu and the Philippines. The oriental territories were not an easy ground for the bold architectural achievements that they produced. Despite faraway strangeness and uncountable personal losses, in revolutions and wars, which eventually forced them both to leave for the United States of America and never to return, they were successful in the manner of establishing a broad avenue for modern Asian architecture which is still recognizable today thanks to their systematic approach. However, theirs is an endangered heritage and the intention of this article is to offer a just remembrance of the way in which such actions could be performed, how they predated by many years a syntactic approach to architectural composition and why their legacy should be preserved

A multidisciplinary investigation of the Konopi mansion in Odvos, Romania

Architectural heritage represents one of the most important assets of a local community, as it embodies their authenticity and spirit of place. This paper takes a look at the nobiliary manor houses in the extra-urban area of the county Arad, which is located in the western part of Romania, close to the border with Hungary. Along the Mures River, there are many manor houses and the interest and curiosity for this type of former residences of the nobility in Romania has increased in the last few years, whether we are talking about entrepreneurs who want to restore them to their former glory or passers-by curious to discover hidden treasures in rural areas. This architecture, that of the extra-urban noble residences, is a particular feature of the Modernity, very valuable in terms of cultural heritage because it was the result of a culture of the European area. It can be said that the noble architecture of the region Banat-Crișana is a result of the regional interpenetration of Central European canons. Early modern noble residences –known by their classical architecture – are characteristic of rural landscape of the Mures Valley, with more than ten such mansions and buildings of high historical value. Of these, the Konopi mansion, whose architecture makes its presence felt in the consciousness of the community, as it marks the silhouette of the Mures valley. The aim of this paper is to study the manor house and the ensemble Konopi and the way in which the residences were thought of and perceived at the time, both from the point of view of their function as a dwelling and as a symbol of the family power in the countryside. The overall objective of this paper is to identify the ways to intervene on the Konopi Castle complex and to generate a strategy for its long-lasting functioning so that the historical monument of regional and local interest can be left for future generations