Growth in the Real Size of Government since 1970

From at least 1893 economists have viewed income as an important determinant of government size and the hypothesis that government size increases with income is now enshrined in the literature as Wagner’s Law. More recently, however, public choice economists and growth theorists have tended to reverse that causality by questioning whether government size is a constraint on (or promulgator of) economic growth. Typically, increases in government size arising from increased consumption are viewed as constraints on growth, while increases in size that arise from government investment are viewed as positive in their effect on growth. In this paper we are concerned with the two-way interrelationship between government size and income growth highlighted by these separate literatures and investigate this relationship in three distinct stages. In the first part of the paper we set out what has actually happened to the real size of government for twenty OECD countries over the period since 1970 and survey some of the newer factors and approaches used to explain its more recent evolution. The second part re-estimates the parameters of the demand curve for government allows us to speculate whether the changing pattern of government growth represents a break in the structure of the model determining government size or, more simply, represents a change in the variation of the underlying variables. We find that the same model works at least as well as it did in earlier periods with coefficients that are close to their earlier estimates. We follow this by estimating a simple growth model that highlights the size of government consumption in relation to income and output growth for the same countries over the same time period. Increases in size do appear to constrain economic growth. The third part of our paper recognizes that while each of the two causal relationships has received considerable attention in their own right, less attention has been given to effecting a separation of their co-mingled effects. To do so, we estimate the two relationships simultaneously in the context of our panel. This allows us assess whether ignoring the simultaneity of the two-way relationship seriously biases the measure of either the income effect (in determining government size) and/or the measure of government’s effect on economic growth when each are estimated separately. While our discussion suggests that single equation estimates of the income elasticity in Wagner’s Law may have been biased upwards (in absolute terms) and the constraining effect of government size on growth biased downwards, our three stage estimates finds only modest support in the data. The paper concludes by exploring the interrelationship between government size and government regulation. In particular, we test the hypothesis that the appearance of slower growth in government side is due to the increased substitution of indirect control of private production for direct governmental output. On cross sectional data, we find the opposite. In our sample, larger government size is associated with more rather than less regulation.

Growth in the Real Size of Government since 1970

From at least 1893 economists have viewed income as an important determinant of government size and the hypothesis that government size increases with income is now enshrined in the literature as Wagner's Law. More recently, however, public choice economists and growth theorists have tended to reverse that causality by questioning whether government size is a constraint on (or promulgator of) economic growth. Typically, increases in government size arising from increased consumption are viewed as constraints on growth, while increases in size that arise from government investment are viewed as positive in their effect on growth. In this paper we are concerned with the two-way interrelationship between government size and income growth highlighted by these separate literatures and investigate this relationship in three distinct stages. In the first part of the paper we set out what has actually happened to the real size of government for twenty OECD countries over the period since 1970 and survey some of the newer factors and approaches used to explain its more recent evolution. The second part re-estimates the parameters of the demand curve for government allows us to speculate whether the changing pattern of government growth represents a break in the structure of the model determining government size or, more simply, represents a change in the variation of the underlying variables. We find that the same model works at least as well as it did in earlier periods with coefficients that are close to their earlier estimates. We follow this by estimating a simple growth model that highlights the size of government consumption in relation to income and output growth for the same countries over the same time period. Increases in size do appear to constrain economic growth. The third part of our paper recognizes that while each of the two causal relationships has received considerable attention in their own right, less attention has been given to effecting a separation of their co-mingled effects. To do so, we estimate the two relationships simultaneously in the context of our panel. This allows us assess whether ignoring the simultaneity of the two-way relationship seriously biases the measure of either the income effect (in determining government size) and/or the measure of government's effect on economic growth when each are estimated separately. While our discussion suggests that single equation estimates of the income elasticity in Wagner's Law may have been biased upwards (in absolute terms) and the constraining effect of government size on growth biased downwards, our three stage estimates finds only modest support in the data. The paper concludes by exploring the interrelationship between government size and government regulation. In particular, we test the hypothesis that the appearance of slower growth in government side is due to the increased substitution of indirect control of private production for direct governmental output. On cross sectional data, we find the opposite. In our sample, larger government size is associated with more rather than less regulation

Institutional structures for doctoral students at universities of teacher education in Switzerland

Das im Jahr 2021 erschienene Positionspapier von swissuniversities zum Doktorat hebt nicht nur die zunehmende Wichtigkeit der Promotion im Rahmen von Personalentwicklungsstrategien und Personalentwicklungsmassnahmen an den Pädagogischen Hochschulen der Schweiz hervor, sondern hält auch Grundsätze fest, um die Qualität und die Attraktivität der Doktoratsausbildung zu stärken und sicherzustellen. Der folgende Beitrag erkundet und beschreibt unterschiedliche institutionelle Strukturen für Doktorierende an Pädagogischen Hochschulen, die sich im Aufbau befinden, bereits etabliert sind oder weiterentwickelt werden. Dazu gehören beispielsweise finanzielle und wissenschaftliche Unterstützungsangebote. (DIPF/Orig.)A position paper by swissuniversities on doctoral studies published in 2021 highlights the increasing importance of doctoral studies in the context of human resource development strategies and measures at the Swiss universities of teacher education, and outlines principles for strengthening and ensuring the quality and the attractiveness of doctoral education. The following article explores and describes different dimensions of institutional structures for doctoral students, including, for instance, financial and academic support services, which are under development, already established, or being further developed at universities of teacher education. (DIPF/Orig.

Institutionelle Strukturen für Doktorierende an Schweizer Pädagogischen Hochschulen

Das im Jahr 2021 erschienene Positionspapier von swissuniversities zum Doktorat hebt nicht nur die zunehmende Wichtigkeit der Promotion im Rahmen von Personalentwicklungsstrategien und Personalentwicklungsmassnahmen an den Pädagogischen Hochschulen der Schweiz hervor, sondern hält auch Grundsätze fest, um die Qualität und die Attraktivität der Doktoratsausbildung zu stärken und sicherzustellen. Der folgende Beitrag erkundet und beschreibt unterschiedliche institutionelle Strukturen für Doktorierende an Pädagogischen Hochschulen, die sich im Aufbau befinden, bereits etabliert sind oder weiterentwickelt werden. Dazu gehören beispielsweise finanzielle und wissenschaftliche Unterstützungsangebote

Postural Changes in Blood Pressure Associated with Interactions between Candidate Genes for Chronic Respiratory Diseases and Exposure to Particulate Matter

BACKGROUND. Fine particulate matter [aerodynamic diameter ≤ 2.5 μm (PM2.5)] has been associated with autonomic dysregulation. OBJECTIVE. We hypothesized that PM2.5 influences postural changes in systolic blood pressure (ΔSBP) and in diastolic blood pressure (ΔDBP) and that this effect is modified by genes thought to be related to chronic lung disease. METHODS. We measured blood pressure in participants every 3-5 years. ΔSBP and ΔDBP were calculated as sitting minus standing SBP and DBP. We averaged PM2.5 over 48 hr before study visits and analyzed 202 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in 25 genes. To address multiple comparisons, data were stratified into a split sample. In the discovery cohort, the effects of SNP x PM2.5 interactions on ΔSBP and ΔDBP were analyzed using mixed models with subject-specific random intercepts. We defined positive outcomes as p < 0.1 for the interaction; we analyzed only these SNPs in the replicate cohort and confirmed them if p < 0.025 with the same sign. Confirmed associations were analyzed within the full cohort in models adjusted for anthropometric and lifestyle factors. RESULTS. Nine hundred forty-five participants were included in our analysis. One interaction with rs9568232 in PHD finger protein 11 (PHF11) was associated with greater ΔDBP. Interactions with rs1144393 in matrix metalloprotease 1 (MMP1) and rs16930692, rs7955200, and rs10771283 in inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate receptor, type 2 (ITPR2) were associated with significantly greater ΔSBP. Because SNPs associated with ΔSBP in our analysis are in genes along the renin-angiotensin pathway, we then examined medications affecting that pathway and observed significant interactions for angiotensin receptor blockers but not angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors with PM2.5. CONCLUSIONS. PM2.5 influences blood pressure and autonomic function. This effect is modified by genes and drugs that also act along this pathway.National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (T32 ES07069, ES0002, ES015172-01, ES014663, P01 ES09825); United States Environmental Protection Agency (R827353, R832416); National Institutes of Health/National Institute of Aging (AG027014); United States Department of Veterans Affairs; Massachusetts Veterans Epidemiology Research and Information Cente

Encontro casual na região central do Texas fornece informações sobre a ecologia da estivação de Siren nettingi (Caudata: Sirenidae)

Siren spp. costumam ser vertebrados dominantes nas áreas úmidas que ocupam e são conhecidas por estivar quando essas áreas úmidas secam. Considerações práticas limitam as observações in situ de indivíduos em estivação. Em 12 de outubro de 2021, descobrimos por acaso um agregado em estivação de Siren nettingi no condado de Bastrop, Texas, Estados Unidos. Essas salamandras foram escavadas em solo compacto e rochoso adjacente a uma estrada de caliche, em profundidades que variavam entre ~0,2 e 1,5 m. A vegetação dominante nesse local incluía Ulmus crassifolia, Persicaria sp. e várias espécies de gramíneas. Recuperamos 140 indivíduos, dos quais sete foram resgatados e 133 foram capturados vivos. Medimos 115 deles quanto ao comprimento rostro-cloacal (SVL) e observamos que o agregado era dominado por jovens. Estimamos uma densidade de estivação de 2,33 indivíduos/m2 que é comparável às densidades estimadas para populações sem estivação. No entanto, como não houve monitoramento para esse estudo, provavelmente tenha ocorrido um evento de mortalidade em massa. Portanto, sugerimos que a construção de estradas no habitat preferido seja considerada uma ameaça às populações dessas salamandras.Siren spp. are often dominant vertebrates in the wetlands they occupy and are known to estivate when such wetlands dry up. Practical considerationslimit in-situ observations of estivating individuals. On 12 October 2021, we incidentally discovered an estivating aggregate of Siren nettingi in Bastrop County, Texas, USA. These salamanders were excavated from compact, rocky soil adjacent to a caliche road, at depths that ranged between ~0.2 to 1.5 m. The dominant vegetation at this site included Ulmus crassifolia, Persicaria sp., and various grass species. We recovered 140 individuals of which seven were salvaged and 133 were captured live. We measured 115 of these for snout–vent length (SVL) and observed the aggregate was predominated by juveniles. We estimated an estivation density of 2.33 sirens/m2 that is comparable to densities estimated for non-estivating populations. However, in-lieu of monitoring that was in place for this study, we expect a mass mortality event would have likely occurred. We therefore suggest that roadway construction in preferred habitat be considered as a threat to siren populations

Character Development Through Youth Sport: High School Coaches’ Perspectives about a Character-based Education Program

This study examined high school sports coaches’ perspectives about a character-based coach education workshop designed to promote positive coaching practices and transform the culture of youth sports. Fifteen coaches (Mage = 42.07, SD = 14.62, 73.3% male) provided feedback about Positive Coaching Alliance’s (PCA) “Double-Goal Coach” training program and what aspects of the workshop they applied to their coaching practices. Results indicated that coaches believed that participation in PCA workshops contributed to the value coaches attributed to individuals, to coach-oriented character development, and to positive relationships within youth sports. The coaches also suggested changes in future PCA workshops. These findings provide preliminary evidence that coaches’ incorporate skills acquired through participation in character-based coach education programs. We discuss implications for coaches and athletes, and for policies aimed at enhancing positive youth attributes developed through sport

Prolonged Exposure to Particulate Pollution, Genes Associated with Glutathione Pathways, and DNA Methylation in a Cohort of Older Men

Background: DNA methylation is a potential pathway linking environmental exposures to disease. Exposure to particulate air pollution has been associated with increased cardiovascular morbidity and mortality, and lower blood DNA methylation has been found in processes related to cardiovascular morbidity

HRP2 Determines the Efficiency and Specificity of HIV-1 Integration in LEDGF/p75 Knockout Cells but Does Not Contribute to the Antiviral Activity of a Potent LEDGF/p75-Binding Site Integrase Inhibitor

The binding of integrase (IN) to lens epithelium-derived growth factor (LEDGF)/p75 in large part determines the efficiency and specificity of HIV-1 integration. However, a significant residual preference for integration into active genes persists in Psip1 (the gene that encodes for LEDGF/p75) knockout (KO) cells. One other cellular protein, HRP2, harbors both the PWWP and IN-binding domains that are important for LEDGF/p75 co-factor function. To assess the role of HRP2 in HIV-1 integration, cells generated from Hdgfrp2 (the gene that encodes for HRP2) and Psip1/Hdgfrp2 KO mice were infected alongside matched control cells. HRP2 depleted cells supported normal infection, while disruption of Hdgfrp2 in Psip1 KO cells yielded additional defects in the efficiency and specificity of integration. These deficits were largely restored by ectopic expression of either LEDGF/p75 or HRP2. The double-KO cells nevertheless supported residual integration into genes, indicating that IN and/or other host factors contribute to integration specificity in the absence of LEDGF/p75 and HRP2. Psip1 KO significantly increased the potency of an allosteric inhibitor that binds the LEDGF/p75 binding site on IN, a result that was not significantly altered by Hdgfrp2 disruption. These findings help to rule out the host factor-IN interactions as the primary antiviral targets of LEDGF/p75-binding site IN inhibitors

Fuel Element Structural Design and Manufacture for the Consolidated Edison Thorium Reactor Plant

The design of the fuel-element structure for the CETR is described. Component parts of the assembly comprise the fuel-bundle assembly, the fuel-can assembly, the upper transition, the fuel-element spring, and the upper nozzle and seal assembly. (J.R.D.