Artificial Intelligence and civil liability

This study – commissioned by the Policy Department C at the request of the Committee on Legal Affairs – analyses the notion of AI-technologies and the applicable legal framework for civil liability. It demonstrates how technology regulation should be technologyspecific, and presents a Risk Management Approach, where the party who is best capable of controlling and managing a technology-related risk is held strictly liable, as a single entry point for litigation. It then applies such approach to four case-studies, to elaborate recommendations

Investigation on the role of thyroid hormones and their derivatives in different physiopathogenetic mechanisms using HPLC-MS/MS

High Performance Liquid Chromatography coupled to Tandem Mass Spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS) is a versatile analytical technique widely applied in chemistry, biology, laboratory medicine, and biochemistry. This integrated system combines liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry, facilitating the effective separation, identification, and quantification of compounds within complex mixtures. The significance of HPLC-MS/MS extends to various fields, including pharmaceuticals, environmental analysis, and metabolites analysis. This research focused on the application of HPLC-MS/MS for the quantification of thyroid hormones (TH), such as 3,5,3’-triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4), along with their metabolites. TH play crucial roles in growth processes, development, and energy metabolism, motivating a comprehensive exploration of their dynamics in different physiological and pathological processes. The study is organized around four investigations utilizing HPLC-MS/MS as a pivotal instrument with unique pre-analytical approaches and analytical methods to explore diverse matrices. Firstly, the research unveiled neurocognitive dynamics in adult-onset hypothyroidism, employing a rodent pharmacological model. Using an HPLC-MS/MS method, we quantified the total fraction of T3 and T4 in serum samples, validating the experimental plan and providing insights into the impact of various replacement strategies on neurocognitive and neurobiological alterations. Secondly, the thesis delved into TH dynamics in diabetic retinopathy, utilizing HPLC-MS/MS to detect and quantify T3 and T4 in plasma and retina samples from a type 2 diabetes mouse model. This shed light on potential mechanisms, including T3-dependent microRNA/gene regulatory circuits and mitochondrial function. Thirdly, the study addressed iodine dynamics and the role of enzyme dehalogenase 1 (DEHAL1), employing a Dehal1 KO mouse model. With an adapted method using a derivatization process, our HPLC-MS/MS analysis was able to quantify precursors MIT and DIT in different iodine-supplementation conditions, enhancing understanding of iodine recycling and its consequences. Finally, the thesis investigated DEHAL1 gene mutations in congenital hypothyroidism, using HPLC-MS/MS to measure MIT and DIT levels in serum and urine of patients from different Sudanese families. The findings from the pharmacologically induced hypothyroidism model underscored the necessity and sufficiency of levothyroxine (L-T4) alone to restore memory and neuroprogenitors levels to the euthyroid state, challenging the hypothetical impact on neurogenetic pathways of alternative replacement treatments, such as those implying the use of the metabolite T1AM. Subsequently, we revealed the existence of a local low T3 state (LT3S) in the diabetic retina. This highlighted the TH-dependent response to hyperglycemia-induced stress, unveiling a complex temporal dynamic influencing retinal responses in diabetic retinopathy. Through the development of a new optimized HPLC-MS/MS method, the research uncovered the crucial role of the enzyme DEHAL1 in iodine metabolism within the thyroid gland. Elevated iodotyrosines emerged as biomarkers for the risk of iodine-deficient hypothyroidism, providing translational insights for clinical validation. Eventually, the measurement of serum and urine MIT and DIT emerged as sensitive indicators of iodotyrosines deiodination defects in the presence of DEHAL1/IYD mutations, surpassing traditional urine iodine levels and thyroid function tests. This approach offered valuable diagnostic and management insights into dehalogenase-related disorders, emphasizing the importance of personalized and nuanced approaches. In conclusion, this diverse series of examinations highlighted the instrumental role of HPLC-MS/MS in advancing our understanding of TH dynamics across various physiological and pathological contexts. The precision and versatility of this technique have yielded invaluable insights, paving the way for future research endeavors and potential clinical applications

AI & Civil Liability

When dealing with novel fast-evolving technologies that are deemed ever more complex, autonomous, capable of learning and modifying themselves, and thus opaque and unpredictable, it is essential to assess the adequacy of civil liability rules

Robots and AI as Legal Subjects? Disentangling the Ontological and Functional Perspective

: Robotics and AI-based applications (RAI) are often said to be so technologically advanced that they should be held responsible for their actions, instead of the human who designs or operates them. The paper aims to prove that this thesis ("the exceptionalist claim")-as it stands-is both theoretically incorrect and practically inadequate. Indeed, the paper argues that such claim is based on a series of misunderstanding over the very notion and functions of "legal responsibility", which it then seeks to clarify by developing and interdisciplinary conceptual taxonomy. In doing so, it aims to set the premises for a more constructive debate over the feasibility of granting legal standing to robotic application. After a short Introduction setting the stage of the debate, the paper addresses the ontological claim, distinguishing the philosophical from the legal debate on the notion of i) subjectivity and ii) agency, with their respective implications. The analysis allows us to conclude that the attribution of legal subjectivity and agency are purely fictional and technical solutions to facilitate legal interactions, and is not dependent upon the intrinsic nature of the RAI. A similar structure is maintained with respect to the notion of responsibility, addressed first in a philosophical and then legal perspective, to demonstrate how the latter is often utilized to both pursue ex ante deterrence and ex post compensation. The focus on the second objective allows us to bridge the analysis towards functional (law and economics based) considerations, to discuss how even the attribution of legal personhood may be conceived as an attempt to simplify certain legal interactions and relations. Within such a framework, the discussion whether to attribute legal subjectivity to the machine needs to be kept entirely within the legal domain, and grounded on technical (legal) considerations, to be argued on a functional, bottom-up analysis of specific classes of RAI. That does not entail the attribution of animacy or the ascription of a moral status to the entity itself

The Expert Group’s Report on Liability for Artificial Intelligence and Other Emerging Digital Technologies: a critical assessment

This article offers a critical discussion of the “Report on Liability for Artificial Intelligence and Other Emerging Digital Technologies” released by the Expert Group on Liability and New Technologies. In particular, the authors consider: the excessive diversity of applications encompassed through the notion of “artificial intelligence and other emerging technologies”; the distinction between high- and low-risk applications as a potential source of legal uncertainty; the primary reliance on evidentiary rules over substantive ones; the problematic role attributed to safety rules; the unclear relationship between the Product Liability Directive and other ad hoc liability regimes; the radical exclusion of electronic personhood as a way of addressing liability issues; and the limited contextualisation of compulsory insurance and no-compensation funds

Do Robots Care? Towards an Anthropocentric Framework in the Caring of Frail Individuals through Assistive Technologies

As a consequence of modern medicine and modern style of living, two demographic trends, namely longevity and a decline in fertility have greatly increased the aging population. The number of older persons aged 60 years or over is expected to be 1.4 billion by 2030 (World Population Data 2017). This demographic change combined with changes in family structure challenges the future of elderly care, and contributes to grounding a case towards the use of advanced robotics and AI to either integrate or radically replace human-provided services in this field. This paper introduces an anthropocentric framework – as defined by the European Commission in its 2018 Communication on AI – for the care of elderly individuals through assistive robotic technologies. Firstly, the concepts of care and cure are distinguished, followed by a critical analysis of the function of robots in the context of care. The paper continues with an analysis of the aforesaid technologies with the notion of care provided to highlight that machines have the potential to interact and simulate a relationship, but not to establish a real meaningful one with the user. User’s deception and deprivation of a meaningful care-relationship is discussed as a potential risk emerging from an incorrect use of technology in the treatment of fragile individuals, and the fundamental legal principle of human dignity is considered with respect to its potential application and impact on policies in this domain, as an objective criterion that poses limits also to the individual’s freedom of self-determination

Machinability Of Polyamide 6 Under Cryogenic Cooling Conditions

Abstract Machining of polymeric materials can attain interest when the production lot does not justify the cost of molds or extrusion dies, or when the product to be manufactured requires dimensional accuracy not achievable otherwise. In this framework, the present study aims at evaluating the machinability of the polyamide 6 as a function of the cooling conditions. Two different cryogenic cooling configurations were adopted, whereas the conventional flood cooling was used as reference for sake of comparison, leading to machining conditions under very different temperature ranges. The polyamide 6 machinability was evaluated in terms of surface integrity (surface roughness, surface defects, crystallinity percentage and hardness) and chip morphology. Results show that the polyamide 6 has to be cut in a specific temperature range, namely between -20°C to 20°C, in order to get the best surface finish, namely achieving the lowest surface roughness and density of defects. In addition, the cryogenic cooling is proved to produce harder surfaces than the flood condition, but leaving unaltered the polymer crystallinity degree

The Effect of Cryogenic Cooling and Drill Bit on the Hole Quality when Drilling Magnesium-based Fiber Metal Laminates

Abstract The interest on fiber metal laminates has increased significantly in recent years as a consequence of the request of lighter and more functional aerospace and automotive components. In such parts, drilling is essential for assembly purposes. Nevertheless, drillability of fiber metal laminates is a critical issue due to the heterogeneous mechanical and thermal properties of metals and composites. The current research work aims at understanding how to improve the hole quality after drilling of magnesium-based fiber metal laminates. To this aim, dry and cryogenic cooling was applied as well as the adoption of three different drill bits, namely uncoated drill bits, coated drill bits and spur drills. Hole size, cylindricity, roughness, entry burr height, exit delamination and fiber pull-out are considered as experimental outcomes to characterize the hole surface quality. Results show that both spur drills and cryogenic cooling can significantly improve hole quality. The process parameters combination capable to guarantee the highest surface quality is finally provided

Gauging fractons and linearized gravity

We consider the covariant gauge field theory of fractons, which describe a new type of quasiparticles exhibiting novel and nontrivial properties. In particular, we focus on the field theoretical peculiarities which characterize this theory, starting from the fact that, if we accept the paradigm that quantum field theories are defined by their symmetries, fractons unavoidably come together with linearized gravity. The standard Faddeev-Popov procedure to gauge fix the theory leads to a scalar gauge condition, which has two important drawbacks: it is frozen in the Landau gauge and linearized gravity cannot be obtained as a limit. In this paper we adopt a tensorially alternative gauge fixing, which avoids both problems. In particular, this allows to show that important physical features, like the counting of the degrees of freedom, do not depend on a particular gauge choice, as expected. Moreover, the resulting gauge fixed theory contains both fractons and linearized gravity as a limit, differently from the standard scalar choice.Comment: 22 page