Nepal Sanitation Movement Lessons Learnt on Targets and Monitoring

Many governments in Asia and Africa have set ambitious target dates for their countries becoming open defecation free (ODF). Some have recently concluded national sanitation campaigns; a number of countries have campaigns underway; while others are in the conceptualising and planning process. Monitoring and reporting results is one of the key challenges associated with these campaigns. This case study accompanies the publication: ‘Monitoring sanitation campaigns: Targets, reporting and realism’ which presents lessons learnt to date to inform ongoing and future government campaigns intended to end open defecation and improve access to safely managed sanitation.Sid

Approaches and Activities Adopted by M. Ed. Student Teachers of English to Teach Reading: A Critical Assessment

Literature on second language reading suggests that the effectiveness of teaching reading depends largely on theoretically-guided and contextually-informed classroom methodology. In this study, we investigated the classroom methodology adopted by the students of Master of Education (M. Ed.) specializing in English from Mahendra Ratna Campus, Tahachal, who were teaching Bachelor of Education (B. Ed.) reading courses during their practice teachinghence defined as ‘student teachers’ (STs). Foregrounding the role of reading in the overall language development and academic achievement of English as a foreign language (EFL) students, the present B. Ed. English curriculum under Tribhuvan University has adopted a content-based approach to teaching reading. In order to understand how those reading courses were taught, we purposively selected ten M.Ed. STs and observed two classes of each, employing a semi-structured classroom observation scheme. In order to cross-compare STs' classroom performance with their theoretical knowledge about reading pedagogy and overall objectives of the reading courses, we also analyzed the English language teaching course the STs had studied in the M.Ed. program as well as B. Ed. reading courses and coursebooks they were teaching. The collected data were coded and analyzed thematically. The findings show that the teaching methodology adopted by the STs goes counter to the principles of ESL/EFL reading and expectations articulated in the reading courses. These findings illustrate the urgent need to reassess the methodology of teaching reading at the tertiary level and minimize the gap between the M. Ed. English students’ pedagogical knowledge and their classroom performance

Mitigation potential of urease inhibitory compounds in reducing ammonia emissions from cattle urine in dairy-grazed pasture soils : a thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in Soil Science at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand

The excretal deposition by grazing animals, especially urine containing about 80% urea, and urea fertiliser use on pastoral farms are major sources of ammonia (NH3) emissions in New Zealand (NZ) agriculture. Recent intensification of dairy farming in NZ has resulted in a substantial increase in the use of nitrogen (N) fertiliser, especially urea, and the quantity of urine deposited by grazing dairy cows onto pasture soils, and as a consequence, higher NH3 emissions. These emissions represent economic and environmental losses. The urease inhibitor (UI) N-(n-butyl) thiophosphoric triamide (nBTPT) has shown effectiveness in reducing emissions when applied with fertiliser urea or cattle urine in NZ dairy-grazed pasture soils. However, the inhibitory effect of nBTPT on reducing NH3 emissions is effective for a relatively short period (7 - 14 days), during which emissions from urea fertiliser is inhibited. But, in the context of grazed pasture, to reduce the NH3 emitted from deposited urine following each grazing event, regular applications of nBTPT are required, which would be prohibitively expensive. To mitigate NH3 emissions from cattle urine deposited during more than a single grazing, in dairy-grazed pasture soils, it is necessary to identify alternative longer lasting inhibition approaches to using nBTPT. Therefore, the overall objective of this thesis was to assess the effectiveness and longevity of potentially longer-lasting non-specific inhibitors copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn), and the specific inhibitor N-(2-Nitrophenyl) phosphoric triamide (2-NPT) in reducing NH3 emissions following cattle urine applied to pasture soils. The study presented in this thesis initially examined the influence of inherent and added Cu and Zn in inhibiting soil urease activity (UA), and the role of soil organic carbon (C) and soil textural and mineralogical properties on influencing the ability of these metals at inhibiting soil UA of dairy pasture soils under laboratory incubations. The study then evaluated the effect of the recently introduced UI 2-NPT on NH3 emissions, soil microbial biomass C, pasture dry matter yield and N uptake, which was compared with the more commonly used UI nBTPT. This study involved both laboratory and field experiments. The first laboratory experiment assessed the effect of inherent and added Cu and Zn in inhibiting soil UA of dairy-grazed pasture soils. The results showed significant positive correlations between soil total C and N with soil UA for 23 soils from the Waikato region of NZ. However, there were no significant negative correlations between soil UA with inherent Cu and Zn levels. Similarly, the addition of Cu up to 20 mg kg⁻¹ soil and the combination of 5 mg Cu and 5 mg Zn kg⁻¹ soil did not significantly reduce soil UA of 4 dairy-grazed pasture soils, with contrasting organic C levels. In the second laboratory experiment, the influence of the soil C factor (soil organic C, and other related soil properties, such as clay content and cation exchange capacity (CEC)) on the effectiveness of Cu and Zn to inhibit urea hydrolysis in soil supernatants were studied. When Cu was added to 2 different soil supernatants, at rates of 5, 10, and 20 mg Cu kg⁻¹ soil, there was a significant reduction in hydrolysis of urea applied at either 120 or 600 mg urea-N kg⁻¹ soil. Additions of Zn, at a rate of 20 mg kg⁻¹ soil achieved negligible or small reductions in urea hydrolysis after either 120 or 600 mg urea-N kg⁻¹ soil applications to soil supernatants. These results suggest that Cu has a urease inhibitory effect, but its ineffectiveness in C rich pasture soils is caused by reduced bioavailability as a result of high Cu complexation. However, Zn had a negligible inhibitory effect on soil UA at the rate used in this experiment. Overall these results support the conclusion that neither metal is likely to be a practical UI for reducing NH3 emissions from NZ dairy-grazed pasture soils. The effectiveness and longevity of 2-NPT and nBTPT in reducing NH3 emissions from cattle urine applied to 2 dairy-grazed pasture soils were evaluated under laboratory conditions. The inhibitors were applied at the start of the experiment and urine was applied at 4 stages; (A) immediately before, (B) 29 days after, (C) 56 days after, and (D) 29 days after and again 60 days after inhibitor application, and NH3 emissions were measured following each urine application. There were 3 application rates of 2-NPT; 0.025, 0.050, and 0.075% of total urine-N applied at Stage-A, and one rate of nBTPT; 0.025% of total urine-N applied at Stage-A. The application depth of urine applied was 10 mm for Stages A, B and C and 7.2 mm for Stage-D. The % applied urine-N that was emitted as NH3 at the different stages ranged from 14.2 to 50.5% for the soils studied. Both UIs equally reduced total NH3 emissions (20.6 - 27.3%), from both of the soil types, when urine was applied immediately before inhibitor application. The inhibitor 2-NPT continued to reduce emissions (5.6 - 7.4%) from urine applied up to 56 days after the inhibitor application, but only for the soil with lower microbial biomass C and UA, suggesting that 2-NPT has slightly greater longevity of efficacy than nBTPT. When urine was applied immediately before inhibitor application, inhibitors had no effect on soil microbial biomass C, measured 31 days after inhibitor application, which suggest specificity of UIs on inhibiting UA. Two field experiments were conducted during summer and autumn to assess whether the differences observed between the inhibitors 2-NPT and nBTPT in the laboratory experiment are also achieved under field conditions. In the summer experiment, the inhibitors were applied at the start of the experiment and urine was applied at 3 stages; (A) 3 hrs before, (B) 28 days after, and (C) 68 days after inhibitor application, and NH3 emissions were measured following each urine application. The application rates of inhibitors to the urine treatments for all 3 stages were based on the percentage (0.025%) of total urine-N applied at Stage-A. In the autumn experiment, urine was only applied either immediately before or 3 hrs before inhibitor application, also at a rate of 0.025% of total urine-N. The application depth of urine applied in both of the summer and autumn experiments was 10 mm. The NH3-N emitted in the summer experiment was between 15.3 - 23.6% of the applied urine-N (equivalent to 111 - 142 kg N ha⁻¹), however, in autumn the emissions were only 4.5% (equivalent to 27 kg N ha⁻¹ of the total N applied. In the summer experiment, only 2-NPT significantly reduced total NH3 emissions (19.5% reduction), which was only when urine was applied 28 days after the inhibitor application (Stage B). Both inhibitors significantly reduced emissions in autumn when urine was applied either 3 hrs before or immediately before inhibitor application. However, the effectiveness was greater when urine was applied immediately before inhibitor application (52.3 - 72.7% reduction) compared to urine applied 3 hrs before inhibitor application (35.0 - 41.2% reduction). The reduction was greater with 2-NPT (72.7% reduction) compared to nBTPT (52.3% reduction) when urine was applied immediately before inhibitor application. The field study confirmed the findings of laboratory study that the effectiveness and longevity of 2-NPT, in reducing NH3 emissions from cattle urine applied to pasture soils, is greater compared to nBTPT. There was no effect of inhibitors on pasture dry matter yield and N uptake in either of the field experiments. The 2-NPT applied up to about a month prior to a grazing event in summer reduced NH3 emissions from urine patch areas at a rate equivalent to 26 kg N ha⁻¹ (based on 19.5 % reduction in summer) at the subsequent grazing. If 3 applications of 2-NPT are applied in summer (period when emissions are typically the highest) following 3 grazings that would reduce losses by 78 kg N ha⁻¹ from 3 subsequent grazings. When these reductions are extrapolated to determine the overall benefit on whole paddock basis, the total reduction in N loss (26 kg N ha⁻¹ x 3% x 3 grazings) is 2.3 kg N ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹, assuming the urine patches cover 3% of the grazed area per grazing. Thus, overall benefit from using 2-NPT is greater than nBTPT in reducing NH3 emissions from cattle urine deposited in dairy-grazed pastures. However, the size of the reduction from using 2-NPT on whole paddock was low, compared to the amount of N cycling in grazed pastures annually. To further improve the effectiveness of inhibitors, applied after urine application in summer, future research could focus on enhancing the contact between the inhibitor and urine urea by increasing the volume of inhibitor used (>800 L ha⁻¹) and/or by implementing shorter durations (<3 hrs) between urine and inhibitor application. Further changes in volume of inhibitor applied and timing of inhibitor application should consider cost involved and feasibility in dairy farms with the current technology

Circulating Tumor Cells in Breast Cancer: A Potential Liquid Biopsy

Circulating tumor cells (CTCs) have emerged as a new generation of liquid biomarker that allows for noninvasive longitudinal disease monitoring. CTCs represent a rare cell population in the blood, surrounded by billions of hematopoietic cells. Due to the rarity of CTCs in the blood, the isolation of pure CTCs’ populations has proven to be challenging. However, a number of new technologies have emerged using CTCs cytometric/immunological and physical characteristics. Currently, patients with greater than 5 CTCs have a shorter progression-free survival, as compared with those with less than 5 CTCs per 7.5 ml of whole blood. Although the CTC count itself is an independent prognostic marker, the field is shifting toward understanding metastasis-relevant marker expression on CTCs for the improvement of the prognostic significance of CTCs. This chapter first introduces the principles of CTC isolation and detection methods, then the clinical utility of CTCs for prediction of prognosis and therapy response. Lastly, the heterogeneity of CTCs will be discussed

Learning from implementation of the sanitation and hygiene master plan in Nepal

This briefing paper has been prepared based on the basis of field level experiences. It highlights the emerging decentralized leadership in the WASH sector in light of the Master Plan and ODF movement in Nepal. The Master Plan has introduced innovative institutional arrangement of inclusive WASH Coordination Committees to lead ODF movement. These committees leadership of such committees hashave come up with several innovations in planning, financing, implementation and monitoring, and promoting inclusive and participatory governance process in sanitation development. Nepal's sanitation campaign has visibly scaled up ODF status despite some shortcomings. Mobilization of local resources is possible through local leadership, sustainability requires equal emphasis on behavioural and facility aspects and advocacy for health benefits of the improved sanitation are the prime drivers for changes. Similarly, cross-learning are vital for innovations in the sector and integration of sanitation with other development sector activities enhances synergy. The post-ODF intervention is leading the sanitation sector towards livelihood promotion and social wellbeing aspect too

Maize in Nepal: Production Systems, Constraints, and Priorities for Research

Crop Production/Industries, Research and Development/Tech Change/Emerging Technologies,

Equity and inclusion in WASH in Nepal: policy and practice

The inclusive governance in Nepal's drinking water and sanitation sector is a recent phenomenon though several sector policies, plans and other framework had promoted gender, inclusion and community's leadership. The engagement of local level Water Users' and Sanitation Committees is an exclusive example of decentralized arrangement of community management in WASH. These national instruments had enabled inclusion of women and people from disadvantaged communities in the committees and advocated for equity in investment and service delivery. In the past, such policy provisions were poorly complied in the absence of high level political commitments, participatory planning, pragmatic guiding documents and robust monitoring frameworks. The prevailing wider gap in access to drinking water and sanitation services among different groups substantiates this fact. Systematic advocacy, capacity development, enforcement of constitutional and policy provisions, research and studies, review and reflections and knowledge sharing seems crucial to ensure equity and inclusion in the WASH sector

Citrus Essential Oils: A Suite of Insecticidal Compounds

Citrus essential oils (CEOs) and their constituent compounds are being reported to have multifarious activities. In this chapter an attempt is made to discuss the insecticidal activities, as well as CEO profile of different vegetative part of Citrus species and biocidal potentiality of their constituent compounds against diverse insect pests. It is observed that in most of the CEO constituent profile, limonene is the major constituent compound. Other important constituents present in different percentages in different CEOs are β-citronellal, linalool, pinene, β- caryophyllene, β-myrcene, terpinene, citral etc. These plant EO constituents are reported to have insecticidal effects against diverse insect species. Taking the four peel EOs of Citrus limon, Citrus paradisi, Citrus medica, Citrus maxima commonly grown in North Eastern part of India, study on their insecticidal effects against Dolichoderus affinis (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) was made and result is presented showing higher fumigant toxicity of C. medica and C. limon oil against the ant sp. With the increasing awareness for using safe insecticidal products among consumers, the citrus EOs with their attracting terpene compounds having good insecticidal potency bear all attributes to be used as commercial green pesticides in coming days both in indoor and outdoor management of insect pests

Innovative sanitation social movement: experiences from Nepal

Sanitation sector in Nepal remained a low priority till 2010. From 2010, the Government of Nepal prioritized sanitation and hygiene through creating enabling policy environment, inclusive planning, decentralized service delivery arrangement, and transforming sanitation promotion to social movement. The sanitation and hygiene master plan developed in 2011 provided a clear road map as well as set a national target of achieving universal access to improved sanitation by 2017. Social sanitation movement included triggering through school and community led interventions, socio-cultural festivals, sector triggering, decentralized governance, multi-sector collaboration and pro-active engagement of grassroot level actors. As a result access to improved sanitation increased dramatically from 43% in 2010 to 87% in 2016. Despite the huge progress, Nepal has to address a number of issues related to disparity in sanitation coverage and poor hygiene behaviors. There is a strong need of social norms for eliminating certain cultural dogmas especially around menstrual hygiene

Chemical and microbial evaluation of water of Rupa lake

Analysis of chemical and microbial features of Rupa lake water was carried out in summer season by adopting accepted analytical techniques. Water samples were collected at 28°C, and on-site observations were made for features like colour, odour, pH, transparency, dissolved oxygen, and free carbon dioxide. In the laboratory, the concentration of prominent mineral ions and microbial contamination were measured using accepted analytical techniques. Transparency of lake water was noted 91cm and electrical conductivity 41 µs/cm indicating the presence of suspended particulate at moderately higher concentration. This water is slightly alkaline with pH of 7.2 that is accounted by domination of alkali and alkaline metal ions. Presence of nitrogenous species mainly ammonium and nitrate in excess amount has detected to be major reason for rapid eutrophication in the lake. Analysis of Rupa lake water has shown the considerable presence of phosphate and sulphate which have added to the hardness 130 mg/L of the water as well. On the top of this fairly higher concentration of free carbon dioxide indicates presence of organic wastes in association with decaying matters. Domestic sewage discharge, the use of pesticides and fertilizers in agricultural areas, as well as other solid waste dumps has caused microbial contamination and the biggest dangers to the viability of Rupa lake. The risk of contamination and the eutrophication process needs to be managed by creating public awareness [1].The study shows that water quality of Rupa lake is contaminated for drinking but adequately suitable for all aquatic life and ecological balance