New technologies for drug delivery across the blood brain barrier

The blood-brain barrier (BBB) efficiently restricts penetration of therapeutic agents to the brain from the periphery. Therefore, discovery of new modalities allowing for effective delivery of drugs and biomacromolecules to the central nervous system (CNS) is of great need and importance for treatment of neurodegenerative disorders. This manuscript focuses on three relatively new strategies. The first strategy involves inhibition of the drug efflux transporters expressed in BBB by Pluronic® block copolymers, which allows for the increased transport of the substrates of these transporters to the brain. The second strategy involves the design of nanoparticles conjugated with specific ligands that can target receptors in the brain microvasculature and carry the drugs to the brain through the receptor mediated transcytosis. The third strategy involves artificial hydrophobization of peptides and proteins that facilitates the delivery of these peptides and proteins across BBB. This review discusses the current state, advantages and limitations of each of the three technologies and outlines their future prospects

Cell-mediated drug delivery

Introduction: Drug targeting to sites of tissue injury, tumor or infection with limited toxicity is the goal for successful pharmaceutics. Immunocytes (including mononuclear phagocytes (dendritic cells, monocytes and macrophages), neutrophils and lymphocytes) are highly mobile; they can migrate across impermeable barriers and release their drug cargo at sites of infection or tissue injury. Thus, immune cells can be exploited as Trojan horses for drug delivery. Areas covered: This paper reviews how immunocytes laden with drugs can cross the blood-brain or blood-tumor barriers to facilitate treatments for infectious diseases, injury, cancer, or inflammatory diseases. The promises and perils of cell-mediated drug delivery are reviewed, with examples of how immunocytes can be harnessed to improve therapeutic end points. Expert opinion: Using cells as delivery vehicles enables targeted drug transport and prolonged circulation times, along with reductions in cell and tissue toxicities. Such systems for drug carriage and targeted release represent a new disease-combating strategy being applied to a spectrum of human disorders. The design of nanocarriers for cell-mediated drug delivery may differ from those used for conventional drug delivery systems; nevertheless, engaging different defense mechanisms in drug delivery may open new perspectives for the active delivery of drugs

Effect of pluronic P85 on ATPase activity of drug efflux transporters

Purpose. Pluronic block copolymers are potent sensitizers of multidrug resistant (MDR) cancer cells. The sensitization effect by Pluronics is a result of two processes acting in concert: i) intracellular ATP depletion, and ii) inhibition of ATPase activity of drug efflux proteins. This work characterizes effects of Pluronic P85 on ATPase activities of Pgp, MRP1, and MRP2 drug efflux transport proteins and interaction of these proteins with their substrates, vinblastine, and leucotriene C4. Methods. Using membranes overexpressing Pgp, MRP1, and MRP2, the current study evaluates effects of Pluronic P85 (P85) on the kinetic parameters (V max, K m, V max/K m) of ATP hydrolysis by these ATPases. Results. The decreases in the maximal reaction rates (V max) and increases in apparent Michaelis constants (K m) for these transporters in the presence of various concentrations of P85 were observed. The mechanism of these effects may involve i) conformational changes of the transporter due to membrane fluidization and/or ii) nonspecific steric hindrance of the drug-binding sites by P85 chains embedded into cellular membranes. The extent of these alterations was increased in the row MRP1 < MRP2 ≪ Pgp. Conclusions. These data suggest that there are unifying pathways for the inhibition of Pgp and MRPs by the block copolymer. However, the effect of P85 on Pgp ATPase activity is considerably greater compared with the effects on MRP1 and MRP2 ATPases. This may be a reason for greater inhibitory effects of Pluronic in Pgp-compared with MRP-overexpressing cells

Mannosylated Cationic Copolymers for Gene Delivery to Macrophages

Macrophages are desirable targets for gene therapy of cancer and other diseases. Cationic diblock copolymers of polyethylene glycol (PEG) and poly-L-lysine (PLL) or poly{N-[N-(2-aminoethyl)-2-aminoethyl]aspartamide} (pAsp(DET)) are synthesized and used to form polyplexes with a plasmid DNA (pDNA) that are decorated with mannose moieties, serving as the targeting ligands for the C type lectin receptors displayed at the surface of macrophages. The PEG-b-PLL copolymers are known for its cytotoxicity, so PEG-b-PLL-based polyplexes are cross-linked using reducible reagent dithiobis(succinimidyl propionate) (DSP). The cross-linked polyplexes display low toxicity to both mouse embryonic fibroblasts NIH/3T3 cell line and mouse bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMMΦ). In macrophages mannose-decorated polyplexes demonstrate an ≈8 times higher transfection efficiency. The cross-linking of the polyplexes decrease the toxicity, but the transfection enhancement is moderate. The PEG-b-pAsp(DET) copolymers display low toxicity with respect to the IC-21 murine macrophage cell line and are used for the production of non-cross-linked pDNA-contained polyplexes. The obtained mannose modified polyplexes exhibit ca. 500-times greater transfection activity in IC-21 macrophages compared to the mannose-free polyplexes. This result greatly exceeds the targeting gene transfer effects previously described using mannose receptor targeted non-viral gene delivery systems. These results suggest that Man-PEG-b-pAsp(DET)/pDNA polyplex is a potential vector for immune cells-based gene therapy

TPP1 Delivery to Lysosomes with Extracellular Vesicles and their Enhanced Brain Distribution in the Animal Model of Batten Disease

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are promising natural nanocarriers for delivery of various types of therapeutics. Earlier engineered EV-based formulations for neurodegenerative diseases and cancer are reported. Herein, the use of macrophage-derived EVs for brain delivery of a soluble lysosomal enzyme tripeptidyl peptidase-1, TPP1, to treat a lysosomal storage disorder, Neuronal Ceroid Lipofuscinoses 2 (CLN2) or Batten disease, is investigated. TPP1 is loaded into EVs using two methods: i) transfection of parental EV-producing macrophages with TPP1-encoding plasmid DNA (pDNA) or ii) incorporation therapeutic protein TPP1 into naive empty EVs. For the former approach, EVs released by pretransfected macrophages contain the active enzyme and TPP1-encoding pDNA. To achieve high loading efficiency by the latter approach, sonication or permeabilization of EV membranes with saponin is utilized. Both methods provide proficient incorporation of functional TPP1 into EVs (EV-TPP1). EVs significantly increase stability of TPP1 against protease degradation and provide efficient TPP1 delivery to target cells in in vitro model of CLN2. The majority of EV-TPP1 (≈70%) is delivered to target organelles, lysosomes. Finally, a robust brain accumulation of EV carriers and increased lifespan is recorded in late-infantile neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis (LINCL) mouse model following intraperitoneal administration of EV-TPP1

Sensitization of Cells Overexpressing Multidrug-Resistant Proteins by Pluronic P85

Purpose. This study evaluated the chemosensitizing effects of Pluronic P85 (P85) on cells expressing multidrug resistance-associated proteins, MRP1 and MRP2. Methods. Cell models included MRP1- and MRP2-transfected MDCKII cells as well as doxorubicin-selected COR-L23/R cells overexpressing MRP1. Effects of P85 on cellular accumulation and cytotoxicity of vinblastine and doxorubicin were determined. Mechanistic studies characterized the effects of P85 on ATP and reduced glutathione (GSH) intracellular levels as well as MRP ATPase and glutathione-S-transferase (GST) activities in these cells. Results. Considerable increases of vinblastine and doxorubicin accumulation in the cells overexpressing MRP1 and MRP2 in the presence of P85 were observed, although no statistically significant changes in drug accumulation in the parental cells were found. P85 treatment caused an inhibition of MRP ATPase activity. Furthermore, P85 induced ATP depletion in these cells similar to that previously reported for Pgp-overexpressing cells. In addition, reduction of GSH intracellular levels and decrease of GST activity were observed following P85 treatment. Finally, significant enhancement of cytotoxicity of vinblastine and doxorubicin by P85 in MRP-overexpressing cells was demonstrated. Conclusions. This study suggests that P85 can sensitize cells overexpressing MRP1 and MRP2, which could be useful for chemotherapy of cancers that display these resistant mechanisms

Targeted Delivery of siRNA Lipoplexes to Cancer Cells Using Macrophage Transient Horizontal Gene Transfer

Delivery of nucleic acids into solid tumor environments remains a pressing challenge. This study examines the ability of macrophages to horizontally transfer small interfering RNA (siRNA) lipoplexes to cancer cells. Macrophages are a natural candidate for a drug carrier because of their ability to accumulate at high densities into many cancer types, including, breast, prostate, brain, and colon cancer. Here, it is demonstrated that macrophages can horizontally transfer siRNA to cancer cells during in vitro coculture. The amount of transfer can be dosed depending on the amount of siRNA loaded and total number of macrophages delivered. Macrophages loaded with calcium integrin binding protein-1 (CIB1)-siRNA result in decreased tumorsphere growth and decreased mRNA expression of CIB1 and KI67 in MDA-MB-468 human breast cancer cells. Adoptive transfer of macrophages transfected with CIB1-siRNA localizes to the orthotopic MDA-MB-468 tumor. Furthermore, it is reported that macrophage activation can modulate this transfer process as well as intracellular trafficking protein Rab27a. As macrophages are heavily involved in tumor progression, understanding how to use macrophages for drug delivery can substantially benefit the treatment of tumors

Doubly amphiphilic poly(2-oxazoline)s as high-capacity delivery systems for hydrophobic drugs

Solubilization of highly hydrophobic drugs with carriers that are non-toxic, non-immunogenic and well-defined remains a major obstacle in pharmaceutical sciences. Well-defined amphiphilic di- and triblock copolymers based on poly(2-oxazolines) were prepared and used for the solubilization of Paclitaxel (PTX) and other water-insoluble drugs. Probing the polymer micelles in water with the fluorescence probe pyrene, an unusual high polar microenvironment of the probe was observed. This coincides with an extraordinary large loading capacity for PTX of 45. wt.% active drug in the formulation as well as high water solubility of the resulting formulation. Physicochemical properties of the formulations, ease of preparation and stability upon lyophilization, low toxicity and immunogenicity suggest that poly(2-oxazoline)s are promising candidates for the delivery of highly challenging drugs. Furthermore, we demonstrate that PTX is fully active and provides superior tumor inhibition as compared to the commercial micellar formulation

Macrophage-Derived Extracellular Vesicles as Drug Delivery Systems for Triple Negative Breast Cancer (TNBC) Therapy

Efficient targeted delivery of anticancer agents to TNBC cells remains one of the greatest challenges to developing therapies. The lack of tumor-specific markers, aggressive nature of the tumor, and unique propensity to recur and metastasize make TNBC tumors more difficult to treat than other subtypes. We propose to exploit natural ability of macrophages to target cancer cells by means of extracellular vesicles (EVs) as drug delivery vehicles for chemotherapeutic agents, paclitaxel (PTX) and doxorubicin (Dox). We demonstrated earlier that macrophage-derived EVs loaded with PTX (EV-PTX) and Dox (EV-Dox) target cancer cells and exhibited high anticancer efficacy in a mouse model of pulmonary metastases. Herein, we report a manufacture and characterization of novel EV-based drug formulations using different loading procedures that were optimized by varying pH, temperature, and sonication conditions. Selected EV-based formulations showed a high drug loading, efficient accumulation in TNBC cells in vitro, and pronounced anti-proliferation effect. Drug-loaded EVs target TNBC in vivo, including the orthotopic mouse T11 tumors in immune competent BALB/C mice, and human MDA-MB-231 tumors in athymic nu/nu mice, and abolished tumor growth. Overall, EV-based formulations can provide a novel solution to a currently unmet clinical need and reduce the morbidity and mortality of TNBC patients

Novel delivery system enhances efficacy of antiretroviral therapy in animal model for HIV-1 encephalitis

Most potent antiretroviral drugs (e.g., HIV-1 protease inhibitors) poorly penetrate the blood-brain barrier. Brain distribution can be limited by the efflux transporter, P-glycoprotein (P-gp). The ability of a novel drug delivery system (block co-polymer P85) that inhibits P-gp, to increase the efficacy of antiretroviral drugs in brain was examined using a severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) mouse model of HIV-1 encephalitis (HIVE). Severe combined immunodeficiency mice inoculated with HIV-1 infected human monocyte-derived macrophages (MDM) into the basal ganglia were treated with P85, antiretroviral therapy (ART) (zidovudine, lamivudine and nelfinavir (NEL)), or P85 and ART. Mice were killed on days 7 and 14, and brains were evaluated for levels of viral infection. Antiviral effects of NEL, P85, or their combination were evaluated in vitro using HIV-1 infected MDM and showed antiretroviral effects of P85 alone. In SCID mice injected with virus-infected MDM, the combination of ART-P85 and ART alone showed a significant decrease of HIV-1 p24 expressing MDM (25% and 33% of controls, respectively) at day 7 while P85 alone group was not different from control. At day 14, all treatment groups showed a significant decrease in percentage of HIV-1 infected MDM as compared with control. P85 alone and combined ART-P85 groups showed the most significant reduction in percentage of HIV-1 p24 expressing MDM (8% to 22% of control) that were superior to the ART alone group (38% of control). Our findings indicate major antiretroviral effects of P85 and enhanced in vivo efficacy of antiretroviral drugs when combined with P85 in a SCID mouse model of HIVE