Maternal Nonstandard Work Schedules and Breastfeeding Behaviors

Objectives: Although maternal employment rates have increased in the last decade in the UK, there is very little research investigating the linkages between maternal nonstandard work schedules (i.e., work schedules outside of the Monday through Friday, 9–5 schedule) and breastfeeding initiation and duration, especially given the wide literature citing the health advantages of breastfeeding for mothers and children. Methods This paper uses a population-based, UK cohort study, the Millennium Cohort Study (n = 17,397), to investigate the association between types of maternal nonstandard work (evening, night, away from home overnight, and weekends) and breastfeeding behaviors. Results: In unadjusted models, exposure to evening shifts was associated with greater odds of breastfeeding initiation (OR 1.71, CI 1.50–1.94) and greater odds of short (OR 1.55, CI 1.32–1.81), intermediate (OR 2.01, CI 1.64–2.47), prolonged partial duration (OR 2.20, CI 1.78–2.72), and prolonged exclusive duration (OR 1.53, CI 1.29–1.82), compared with mothers who were unemployed and those who work other types of nonstandard shifts. Socioeconomic advantage of mothers working evening schedules largely explained the higher odds of breastfeeding initiation and duration. Conclusions: Socioeconomic characteristics explain more breastfeeding behaviors among mothers working evening shifts. Policy interventions to increase breastfeeding initiation and duration should consider the timing of maternal work schedules

Nonstandard work schedules in the UK: What are the implications for parental mental health and relationship happiness?

This article investigates the associations between nonstandard work schedules, parents’ mental health, and couple relationship happiness across childhood using the Millennium Cohort Study, a longitudinal, population-based data set of births in the UK. Using individual fixed effects models, we investigated the relationship between maternal and paternal nonstandard work schedules, examining both separate and joint work schedules and mental health and relationship happiness. Although we did not observe any associations between mothers’ nonstandard work schedules and their mental health, we did find regularly working night schedules were associated with lower relationship happiness, and particularly so during the school-age period. Fathers’ evening and weekend work schedules were associated with worse mental health. The joint work schedule in which mothers worked a standard schedule and fathers worked nonstandard schedules was associated with lower relationship happiness for mothers and worse mental health for fathers. These results demonstrate the salience of incorporating fathers’ work schedules to understand the challenges and benefits to families of nonstandard work schedules. Our study also emphasizes the significance of investigating the family consequences of nonstandard work schedules in different country contexts

Making it work: Fathers' nonstandard work schedules and parenting activities

Objective: We examined associations between types of nonstandard work schedules among fathers, couple-level work schedules, and fathers' parenting activities in infancy and middle childhood in the United Kingdom. Background: An emerging body of literature has interrogated the implications of fathers' nonstandard schedules for their parenting. The evidence is mixed owing to the range of child ages investigated and country context. It remains unclear whether nonstandard working hours are related to different types of parenting activities. Method: The authors used the Millennium Cohort Study, a nationally representative birth cohort from the UK, and two measures of fathers' parenting: basic care (9-month and 7-year interviews) and play and recreation (7 years). Regression models predicted parenting from fathers' nonstandard work schedules at 9-months (n = 11,412) and 7 years (n = 7791). Results: Fathers who regularly worked night schedules engaged in more basic care in both infancy and middle childhood, compared to fathers who regularly worked standard schedules. Evening schedules were related to lower levels of basic care among infants and 7-year-olds. There were stronger positive associations with parenting when considering mothers' work schedules. Fathers' parenting at both ages was higher in families in which both parents worked at nonstandard times or parents were engaged in split-shift schedules. Conclusion: Fathers' night work schedules were associated with more parenting activities in infancy and middle childhood. The combination of fathers' and mothers' work schedules were relatively more important than considering fathers' work schedules in isolation

Mixed ethnicity and behavioural problems in the Millennium Cohort Study

BACKGROUND: The population of mixed ethnicity individuals in the UK is growing. Despite this demographic trend, little is known about mixed ethnicity children and their problem behaviours. We examine trajectories of behavioural problems among non-mixed and mixed ethnicity children from early to middle childhood using nationally representative cohort data in the UK. METHODS: Data from 16 330 children from the Millennium Cohort Study with total difficulties scores were analysed. We estimated trajectories of behavioural problems by mixed ethnicity using growth curve models. RESULTS: White mixed (mean total difficulties score: 8.3), Indian mixed (7.7), Pakistani mixed (8.9) and Bangladeshi mixed (7.2) children had fewer problem behaviours than their non-mixed counterparts at age 3 (9.4, 10.1, 13.1 and 11.9, respectively). White mixed, Pakistani mixed and Bangladeshi mixed children had growth trajectories in problem behaviours significantly different from that of their non-mixed counterparts. CONCLUSIONS: Using a detailed mixed ethnic classification revealed diverging trajectories between some non-mixed and mixed children across the early life course. Future studies should investigate the mechanisms, which may influence increasing behavioural problems in mixed ethnicity children

Parental absence in early childhood and onset of smoking and alcohol consumption before adolescence

Background: Parental absence, due to death or separation from a parent, has been associated with smoking and alcohol consumption in adolescence and adulthood. The aim of this study was to investigate whether parental absence in early childhood was associated with smoking and alcohol uptake before adolescence. / Methods: Data on 10,940 children from the UK’s Millennium Cohort Study were used. Logistic regression was used to test associations between parental absence (0-7 years) and reports of smoking and alcohol consumption at age 11. / Results: Children who experienced parental absence were more likely to have smoked (OR=2.58, 95% CI: 1.88, 3.56) and consumed alcohol (OR=1.46, 95% CI: 1.25, 1.72). No differences were found by child sex or age, or parent absent. Children who experienced parental death were less likely to have drunk alcohol but those who had were more likely to have consumed enough to feel drunk. / Conclusions: Parental absence was associated with early uptake of risky health behaviours in a large, nationally representative UK cohort. Children who experience parental absence should be supported in early life in order to prevent smoking and alcohol initiation

Work hours, weekend working, nonstandard work schedules and sleep quantity and quality: findings from the UK household longitudinal study.

BACKGROUND: Atypical temporal work patterns such as working longer than the standard 35-40 h/ week, weekend working, and nonstandard work schedules (i.e. outside of the typical 9-5, including but not restricted to shiftwork) are increasingly prevalent in the UK. Aside from occupation-specific studies, little is known about the effects of these atypical temporal work patterns on sleep among workers in the UK, even though poor sleep has been linked to adverse health problems, lower workplace productivity, and economic costs. METHOD: We used regression models to investigate associations between three types of atypical temporal work patterns (long and short weekly work hours, weekend working, and nonstandard schedules) and sleep duration and disturbance using data from over 25,000 employed men and women from 2012-2014 and/or 2015-2017 in the UK Household Longitudinal Study, adjusting for potential confounders and psychosocial work factors. RESULTS: We found that relative to a standard 35-40 h/week, working 55 h/week or more was related to short sleep (less than 7 h/night) and sleep disturbance. Working most/all weekends compared to non-weekends was associated with short sleep, long sleep (more than 8 h/night), and sleep disturbance, as was working nonstandard schedules relative to standard schedules (fixed day-time schedules). Further analyses suggested some gender differences. CONCLUSIONS: These results should prompt employers and policymakers to recognise the need for rest and recovery, consider how the timing and scheduling of work might be improved to better support workers' health and productivity, and consider appropriate compensation for anyone required to work atypical temporal work patterns

Parental nonstandard work schedules during infancy and children’s BMI trajectories

BACKGROUND: Empirical evidence has demonstrated adverse associations between parental nonstandard work schedules (i.e., evenings, nights, or weekends) and child developmental outcomes. However, there are mixed findings concerning the relationship between parental nonstandard employment and children’s body mass index (BMI), and few studies have incorporated information on paternal work schedules. OBJECTIVE: This paper investigated BMI trajectories from early to middle childhood (ages 3–11) by parental work schedules at 9 months of age, using nationally representative cohort data from the United Kingdom. This study is the first to examine the link between nonstandard work schedules and children’s BMI in the United Kingdom. METHODS: We used data from the Millennium Cohort Study (2001‒2013, n = 13,021) to estimate trajectories in BMI, using data from ages 3, 5, 7, and 11 years. Joint parental work schedules and a range of biological, socioeconomic, and psychosocial covariates were assessed in the initial interviews at 9 months. RESULTS: Compared to children in two-parent families where parents worked standard shifts, we found steeper BMI growth trajectories for children in two-parent families where both parents worked nonstandard shifts and children in single-parent families whose mothers worked a standard shift. Fathers’ shift work, compared to standard shifts, was independently associated with significant increases in BMI. CONCLUSIONS: Future public health initiatives focused on reducing the risk of rapid BMI gain in childhood can potentially consider the disruptions to family processes resulting from working nonstandard hours. CONTRIBUTION: Children in families in which both parents work nonstandard schedules had steeper BMI growth trajectories across the first decade of life. Fathers’ nonstandard shifts were independently associated with increases in BMI

Social Media Use and Adolescent Mental Health: Findings From the UK Millennium Cohort Study

BACKGROUND: Evidence suggests social media use is associated with mental health in young people but underlying processes are not well understood. This paper i) assesses whether social media use is associated with adolescents' depressive symptoms, and ii) investigates multiple potential explanatory pathways via online harassment, sleep, self-esteem and body image. METHODS: We used population based data from the UK Millennium Cohort Study on 10,904 14 year olds. Multivariate regression and path models were used to examine associations between social media use and depressive symptoms. FINDINGS: The magnitude of association between social media use and depressive symptoms was larger for girls than for boys. Compared with 1–3 h of daily use: 3 to < 5 h 26% increase in scores vs 21%; ≥ 5 h 50% vs 35% for girls and boys respectively. Greater social media use related to online harassment, poor sleep, low self-esteem and poor body image; in turn these related to higher depressive symptom scores. Multiple potential intervening pathways were apparent, for example: greater hours social media use related to body weight dissatisfaction (≥ 5 h 31% more likely to be dissatisfied), which in turn linked to depressive symptom scores directly (body dissatisfaction 15% higher depressive symptom scores) and indirectly via self-esteem. INTERPRETATION: Our findings highlight the potential pitfalls of lengthy social media use for young people's mental health. Findings are highly relevant for the development of guidelines for the safe use of social media and calls on industry to more tightly regulate hours of social media use. FUNDING: Economic and Social Research Council

Long work hours, weekend working and depressive symptoms in men and women: findings from a UK population-based study

BACKGROUND: Globalised and 24/7 business operations have fuelled demands for people to work long hours and weekends. Research on the mental health effects of these intensive temporal work patterns is sparse, contradictory or has not considered gender differences. Our objective was to examine the relationship between these work patterns and depressive symptoms in a large nationally representative sample of working men and women in the UK. METHOD: The current study analysed data from Understanding Society, the UK Household Longitudinal Study, of 11 215 men and 12 188 women in employment or self-employment at the time of the study. Ordinary least squares regression models, adjusted for potential confounders and psychosocial work factors, were used to estimate depressive symptoms across categories of work hours and weekend work patterns. RESULTS: Relative to a standard 35-40 hours/week, working 55 hours/week or more related to more depressive symptoms among women (ß=0.75, 95% CI 0.12 to 1.39), but not for men (ß=0.24, 95% CI -0.10 to 0.58). Compared with not working weekends, working most or all weekends related to more depressive symptoms for both men (ß=0.34, 95% CI 0.08 to 0.61) and women (ß=0.50, 95% CI 0.20 to 0.79); however, working some weekends only related to more depressive symptoms for men (ß=0.33, 95% CI 0.11 to 0.55), not women (ß=0.17, 95% CI -0.09 to 0.42). CONCLUSION: Increased depressive symptoms were independently linked to working extra-long hours for women, whereas increased depressive symptoms were associated with working weekends for both genders, suggesting these work patterns may contribute to worse mental health

Math Achievement Trajectories Among Black Male Students in the Elementary- and Middle-School Years

In this article, we analyze the variation in math achievement trajectories of Black male students to understand the different ways these students successfully or unsuccessfully navigate schools and the school characteristics that are associated with their trajectories. Using longitudinal student-level data from a large urban US city (n = 7,039), we analyze Black male students from one cohort to identify trajectories. We find a lack of growth in standardized math scores, suggesting that, on average, math proficiency among Black male students in our sample is declining over time. We found that the 4th-grade standardized math scores of subsidized-lunch students were somewhat lower than those of nonsubsidized students and those of retained students were substantially lower than their counterparts. The average math score of a Black male student's cohort appears to be the only variable amenable to policy manipulation that has a sizeable association with the growth of their standardized math scores, suggesting that putting Black male students in more challenging learning environments may be the best way to increase math proficiency over time. By themselves, other policy decisions (reducing student mobility, teacher turnover, or special education classification; increasing attendance or spending on after-school programming; or hiring more qualified or experienced teachers) all appear to have no or negligible associations with growth in math scores