A Study on the formation process of "theorem of Eastern ways, Western mechines(東道西器論)" in the 19th century

학위논문(박사)--서울대학교 대학원 :국사학과,1999.Docto

개항기 지식인 김병욱(1808∼1885)의 시세인식과 부강론

조선을 비롯한 동양 3국은 19세기 중반에 들면서 서양 자본주의 열강의 도전에 직면하였다. 결국 중국은 1839년의 제1차 중·영전쟁에 패배하여 당경조약을 체결하였으며, 일본은 1853년 4척 와 군함을 팔고 온 폐리 제독의 요구에 불복하여 1854년 미일화친조약을 체결하게 되었다. 일본이 개항한지 10여년이 흐른 1866년에는 로즈 제독이 이끄는 프랑스 군함이 조선에 나타나 통상을 요구함으로써 조선 역시 서양세력의 직접적인 도전에 직면하였다. 1862년 내부적인 모순이 임술민란으로 폭발한 데 이어 프랑스군의 침입까지 겹침으로써 조선 사회는 심각한 위기에 봉착하였다. 19세기 중반에는 위기의 심각성만큼이나 위기에서 벗어나기 위한 지식인들의 사상적 고민 또한 치열하였다. 김병욱은 그러한 치열한 사상적 고민을 하던 지식인 가운데 한사람이었다. 김병욱은 경세의식으로 일관한 인물이었다. 그의 경세론은 19세기 전반 지식인들 사이에서 활발하하게 진행되던 '孔門四科절충식 경세학풍의 연장선에 위치해 있었다. 의리학이 중요하기는 하지만 거기에 반드시 정치적·경제적 관심이 보충되어야 한다는 것이 김병욱의 기본 사고였다. 太平의 정치가 실현되기를 꿈꾸었던 그는 정치적·경제적 기반의 안정을 통해서만 道를 밝힐 수 있다는 확고한 신념을 가지고 있었다. 때문에 그는 도의 퇴락을 초래한 원인을 분석하고 그것을 해결하기 위한 방안을 마련하기 위해 고민하였다. 『太平五策』은 바로 김병욱의 그러한 고민의 산물이었다. 김병욱은 문제의 근본은 내부에 있다는 內修論을 바탕으로 한 富强策을 역설하였으며 삼정을 중심으로 한 그의 개혁론은 후일 동도서기론의 단계로 확대되어 나갔다. 그런 점에서 김병욱은 19세기 전반의 경세사조가 19세기 후반 동도서기론으로 연결되는 과정을 잘 보여주고 있다. 강렬한 救世의식에 비해 현실적인 처지는 너무도 미약하여 김병욱은 생전에 자신의 경세론을 시험해 볼 수 있는 기회를 별로 갖지 못하였지만 사후 아들 金星圭에 의해 직접적으로 계승·실현되고 또 兪吉濬, 魚允中 등 후배 지식인들에게도 적지 않은 영향을 미쳤던 것으로 보인다. 김병욱의 경세론이 어떻게 수용되었는가 하는 문제는 동도서기론의 변화과정을 해명하는 데 시사하는 바가 많을 것으로 기대하는데 이는 후일의 과제로 남겨둔다

세도정치기 산림의 현실인식과 대응론

Oh, Hui-sang(오희상) and Hong, Jik-pil(홍직필) were representative members of in the era of so-called in-law government during which the influence of the Sallim faction was significantly weakened. Although they were appointed to the official position of Sallim scholar and treated as such, they showed a slight willingness to participate in politics. That was because they were critical of the reality of the era of in-law government. Thinking that when the authority of the throne was dominated by royal in-law families, participating in politics with little capacity to reform society was only to pursue practical benefits, they gave up entering government service and devoted themselves to academic activities. With regard to such attitudes, it is generally appreciated that what Sallim scholars studied failed to reflect reality, and thus futile. This is not appropriate. Their refusal to participate in politics virtually originated from vigorous interest in reality, and their academic concentration on Ri or principle was somewhat outdated but not futile. While keeping a distance from politics, they had consistent interest in social matters and even showed interest in the study of governance based on Uirijihak. Oh, Hui-sang and Hong, Jik-pil also observed the spread of Catholicism. They thought Catholic expansion was attributed to the weakened consciousness of righteousness. In order to respond expanding Catholicism, they aroused intellectuals" interest in rejecting heterodoxy. Although they did not specifically state the doctrine of rejecting heterodoxy, they showed the fundamental direction of rejecting heterodoxy and urged attention to the movement of Western powers. Such attitudes were short-sighted and close-mined. However, given that the government resorted to stopgap measures to respond to the movement of Western powers with little awareness of the crisis, their attitudes are considered quite meaningful. Oh, Hui-sang"s and Hong, Jik-pil"s way of recognizing and handling reality had a significant influence on junior literati who followed them. While agreeing to their seniors" consciousness concerning social problems, junior literati expressed their willingness to reform reality and acted differently from their seniors. As for the doctrine of rejecting heterodoxy, they publisheds『Byeogwi Sinpyeon』, a book about rejecting heterodoxy, in consultation with their seniors" doctrine of rejecting heterodoxy. Therefore it is necessary to evaluate again Sallim scholars and related people in the era of in-law government

숙종 영조대 對明義理論의 정치·사회적 기능

Daemyeong Euiri Discourse is a claim that the Chosun Dynasty (1392-1910) needs to keep faith with the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), which dispatched reinforcements to Chosun Korea during the Hideyoshi Invasions. This discourse was often accompanied by the claim called Daecheong Boksu Discourse (對淸復讐論), which means that Chosun must retaliate on the Qing Dynasty that destroyed the Ming Dynasty in 1644. While Bukbeol Discourse (北伐論) claiming to destroy the North (Qing) based on Daemyeong Boksu Discourse was getting less effective as Qing China came to settle down, the Daemyeong Euiri Discourse or Jonju Discourse (尊周論) claiming to respect Zhou Dynasty continued to play a role as an alternative proposal that was very influential in Chosun Society until the late 19th century. Until now the Daemyeong Euiri Discourse has been perceived mainly through the perspective of moral obligation. However, if an ideology proved to be effective in a society for longer than two centuries, it is more reasonable to assume that the ideology had some effective values within the society. The fact that the Daemyeong Euiri Discourse was emphasized in specific periods means that there were special reasons why it had to be emphasized then. The reasons why the Daemyeong Euiri Discourse was emphasized in Chosun Korea varied depending on each period. King Sukjong (r. 1675-1720) stressed it in order to have Chosun Korea prepared for an unexpected situation, while being careful not to have Chosun's relationship with the Qing Dynasty worse. King Yeongjo (r. 1725-1776) emphasized the Daemyeong Euiri Discourse to provide an effective defense method against the rise of Mongolia, as well as to settle down the domestic economy by solving the adverse trade balance with Qing China. King Jeongjo (r. 1777- 1800), who sought a measure to enrich and strengthen Chosun Korea, found its spiritual doctrine in the Daemyeong Euiri Discourse. Each king of the Chosun Dynasty had different reasons why they had to emphasize the Daemyeong Euiri Discourse. But they all aimed to acquire some special effects by doing so, and it seems that their attempts were successful to an extent. The Daemyeong Euiri Discourse appears to have played an essential role in Chosun society during the 18th century. It gradually became weak, but was still very effective by the 19th century

Acceptance of concept of civilization in 1880s and development of logic of civilization

문명은 전통 시대 유교권 사회에서 일상적으로 사용되던 매우 중요한 개념이었다. 유학적 교화의 의미를 담고 있던 문명은 국가가 지향해야할 이상적인 목표였으며 지배층은 지속적으로 이러한 목표를 추구하였다. 문명은 유학의 발달과 함께 정립되었으며 일단 하나의 개념으로 정립되자 유학의 권위를 유지하고 강화하는 데 중요한 기능을 하였다. 그런데 이러한 문명 개념은 일본에서 ‘civilization’이 ‘문명’으로 번역되면서 전통적인 개념과는 다른 의미를 내포하게 되었다. ‘civilization’을 처음 ‘문명’으로 번역한 인물은 잘 알려져 있다시피 후쿠자와 유키치(福擇諭吉)였다. 사절단의 일원으로 미국과 유럽을 돌아보았던 후쿠자와는 당시의 경험을 정리하여 1868년 『서양사정외편』을 출간했는데 여기에서 처음으로 ‘문명’이라는 용어를 사용하였다. 『서양사정외편』은 영국인 챔버스 형제의 『정치경제학교본』의 전반부를 번역한 것인데 'civilization'을 ‘世の文明開化’로 번역한 것이다. 이 글에서 후쿠자와는 인류 역사는 야만에서 문명으로 진보한다고 설명하면서 영국과 같은 유럽 국가를 문명개화국으로 지칭하였다. ‘문명개화’외에 ‘문명’과 ‘개화’라는 용어도 함께 사용했는데 이들 모두 ‘civilization'의 번역이였다. Civilization is an essential concept that had been generally used in Confucian society in the traditional period. Civilization indicating Confucian enlightenment served as the ideal goal that nations should achieve. Civilization was established along with development of Confucianism, and once established as a concept it played an important role in maintaining and intensifying the authority of Confucianism. Apart from the concept of civilization, a new concept of munmyeong ("civilization") was born as a translation of "civilization" in Japan. The new concept of civilization was introduced into Joseon Dynasty in 1880s. Yu Gil-jun simply reported of the logic of civilization by Fukuzawa, and Yun Chi-ho presented a logic slightly different from that of Fukuzawa. While advocates of rapid reformation stated new logic of civilization, Hansungsunbo, a newspaper managed by moderates introduced western concept of civilization but basically adhered to the traditional concept of civilization. Discussion of civilization had been considerably changed after the Gapsin Coup: civilization or enlightenment became blasphemous words that nobody could thoughtlessly disclose. The strong pride for the tradition shown in Hansungjubo was different from the attitude of Hansungsunbo, indicating that the concept of civilization went back to the traditional one