Size-based indicators for assessments of ecological status of coastal fish communities

Human impact does not only affect the abundances of fish, but also the age- and size-distributions. Indicators of fish age and size-structures can hence be useful tools for fisheries- and environmental management. Size-based indicators have been tested and proposed for large, homogenous marine ecosystems with high fishing mortality, but rarely for fine-scaled heterogeneous ecosystems in coastal zones. Here we analyse a suite of size indicators for coastal fish communities in the Baltic Sea, including mean and median length, 10th and 90th-percentile of the length distribution (L10, L90), mean length of the 10% largest fish (Lmax), large fish indices, size-spectra, and size-diversity. Results show good precision and accuracy of most indicators at realistic sample sizes, except for size-spectra and size-diversity, making them less suitable. Different indicators showed correlations among sites, indicating similar responses to environmental variation. Most size indicators responded positively to lower fishing pressure, especially indicators emphasizing the largest individuals in the population (e.g. L90 and Lmax), whereas eutrophication and physical disturbances had less impact. We conclude that size-based indicators aiming at describing the occurrence of larger fish, like L90 and Lmax, are useful for establishing management targets and assessing the status of coastal fish

The Importance of Dispersal for Bacterial Community Composition and Functioning

We conducted a metacommunity experiment to investigate the role of dispersal for bacterial community composition (BCC) and function of freshwater bacteria. Bacteria were dispersed from a common source pool into three different lake communities in their natural lake water. The experiment was conducted in dialysis bags to enable a decoupling between a change in the local environment and dispersal. BCC was determined by terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism (tRFLP) of the 16S rRNA gene. We show that the greatest changes in BCC occurred between 10% and 43% of dispersal of standing stock per day. Functioning, measured as growth rate, was also affected by dispersal in all three communities but the qualitative pattern differed between communities, sometimes showing a hump-shaped relationship to dispersal and sometimes decreasing with increasing dispersal. In all waters, functioning was related to BCC. Our results show that dispersal does affect BCC and functioning but that high dispersal rates are needed. Further, the effect of dispersal on BCC and function seem to depend on the quality of the habitat to which bacteria disperse into

Kunskapssammanställning om effekter på fisk och skaldjur av muddring och dumpning i akvatiska miljöer: en syntes av grumlingens dos och varaktighet

Uppgrumling av vatten från sediment är en påverkansfaktor i både sötvatten och marina miljöer i samband med muddringsarbeten och dumpning av material i vatten. Det är därför viktigt att de verksamheter som orsakar uppgrumling planeras och genomförs så att inverkan på den akvatiska miljön minimeras. I denna rapport sammanställer vi olika direkta och indirekta biologiska effekter av grumling med avseende på fisk och skaldjur (större kräftdjur och mollusker/musslor), utförligare effekter av muddring och dumpning på främst bottenfauna och växtlighet finns beskrivet i Hammar et al. (2009). Vi lyfter fram två faktorer som är viktiga att beakta för att begränsadirekt påverkan av uppgrumling på fisk och skaldjur: 1) tidpunkt på året för uppgrumling, 2) hur kombinationen dos (mängd suspenderat material i vattnet) och varaktighet över tid påverkar olika fiskar och skaldjur. Genom att beakta både direkta och indirekta effekter, tidpunkt och dos-varaktighet vid muddrings- och dumpningsärenden kan påverkan från grumling på fisk och skaldjur begränsas. Uppgrumling av vatten har generellt störst direkt inverkan under fiskars lekperiod och lokala grumlingar bör därför undvikas den tid på året då många arter leker eller har annan särskilt känslig del av sin livscykel i relation till grumlingsverksamhet. Havs- och vattenmyndighetens applikation Lektidsportalen ger information om när på året svenska fisk-och kräftdjursarter leker i olika vattentyper/delvattentyper i olika delar av Sverige. Applikationen är ett viktigt stöd för att kunna planera muddrings- och dumpningsaktiviteter, både i tid och rum, så att de påverkar så få arter som möjligt. Lektidsportalen möjliggör platsspecifika bedömningar av ”tidsfönster” när grumling troligen har minst kumulativ påverkan på fisk och kräftdjur. Fiskars och skaldjurs respons på grumling är både art- och platsspecifik. En viktig faktor är dock att responsen till grumling beror både på dos (koncentration suspenderat material i vatten) och hur länge organismerna är exponerade för uppgrumling (varaktighet). I denna rapport redovisas en sammanställning av tidigare publicerade studier av fiskars och skaldjurs respons till olika kombinationer av dos och varaktighet. Vi delade upp studier mellan fiskar och skaldjur i söt och saltvatten (miljö), samt för olika livsstadier. Sammanställningen visar att lägre koncentrationer kan vägas mot längre varaktighet, och vice versa, för de flesta grupper. Även om det finns vissa skillnader i känslighet mellan miljöer och livsstadier har generellt koncentrationer < 100 mg/l suspenderat material < 14 dagar låg direkt inverkan. En brist på långtidsstudier kring effekter av låga koncentrationer motiverar ändå försiktighet, Sammanfattning framför allt vid långa exponeringstider. Under kortare exponeringstider, i storleksordningen timmardag(ar), kan många arter klara uppåt 1 000 mg/l. Ägg och larver, som har sämre möjligheter att förflytta sig, visar minskad kläcknings- och överlevnadsförmåga vid nivåer långt under 1 000 mg/l och exponering av grumling för tidiga utvecklingsstadier bör därför undvikas. Det är också viktigt att beakta långvariga indirekta effekter av muddring och dumpning på fisk och skaldjur. Förändrat vattenflöde, vattentemperatur eller bottensubstrat kan vara själva syftet med arbetet, och sådana förändringar kan ha stor påverkan på lek och föryngringsmöjligheter av fisk och skaldjur. Framför allt växtlighet men även bytesdjur kan vara känsligare för suspenderat material än fisk och skaldjur vilket gör att viktiga habitat och födotillgång försämras vid muddring eller dumpning. Möjligheterna till restaurering eller kompensationsåtgärder bör därför också beaktas för att på längre sikt inte utarma fisk- och skaldjursbestånd genom försämring och isolering av habitat

Decomposing multiple dimensions of stability in global change experiments

Ecological stability is the central framework to understand an ecosystem’s ability to absorb or recover from environmental change. Recent modelling and conceptual work suggests that stability is a multidimensional construct comprising different response aspects. Using two freshwater mesocosm experiments as case studies, we show how the response to single perturbations can be decomposed in different stability aspects (resistance, resilience, recovery, temporal stability) for both ecosystem functions and community composition. We find that extended community recovery is tightly connected to a nearly complete recovery of the function (biomass production), whereas systems with incomplete recovery of the species composition ranged widely in their biomass compared to controls. Moreover, recovery was most complete when either resistance or resilience was high, the latter associated with low temporal stability around the recovery trend. In summary, no single aspect of stability was sufficient to reflect the overall stability of the system

Improving assessments of coastal ecosystems – Adjusting coastal fish indicators to variation in ambient environmental factors

The application of ecological indictors for assessing the environmental status of ecosystems play an important role for effective management. However, natural variability may limit the indicators’ ability to provide relevant information about anthropogenic pressures and guide management action. Coastal fish species are not only a resource for commercial and recreational fisheries but also key ecosystem components in the Baltic Sea, and is therefore used as management objectives within the EU Marine Strategy Framework Directive and the HELCOM Baltic Sea Action Plan. A challenge, however, is that the distribution and abundance of coastal fish populations in Baltic Sea is also influenced by spatial and temporal variation in ambient environmental factors. Here, using 16 years of monitoring data, over a latitudinal range of 56 – 66°N along the Swedish Baltic Sea coast, we evaluated the effect of variability in water temperature and depth, and wave exposure for three indicators of environmental status assessment in the Baltic Sea: Abundance of perch, Abundance of Cyprinids, and Abundance of Piscivores. Generalized linear mixed models (GLMM) revealed an overall positive linear relationship between water temperature for all indicators, and overall negative linear relationships to depth and wave exposure. When adjusting indicator values using the parameter estimates from the GLMM models, the variability and 95 % confidence interval for all three indicators were reduced. The adjustment, however, did not have a strong impact on the assessment of the ecological state of the indicator. Our results suggest that adjusting coastal fish indicators to variation in local ambient environmental factors will increase their precision, and hence, the confidence in the assessment of environmental status

Improving assessments of coastal ecosystems – Adjusting coastal fish indicators to variation in ambient environmental factors

The application of ecological indictors for assessing the environmental status of ecosystems play an important role for effective management. However, natural variability may limit the indicators’ ability to provide relevant information about anthropogenic pressures and guide management action. Coastal fish species are not only a resource for commercial and recreational fisheries but also key ecosystem components in the Baltic Sea, and is therefore used as management objectives within the EU Marine Strategy Framework Directive and the HELCOM Baltic Sea Action Plan. A challenge, however, is that the distribution and abundance of coastal fish populations in Baltic Sea is also influenced by spatial and temporal variation in ambient environmental factors. Here, using 16 years of monitoring data, over a latitudinal range of 56 – 66°N along the Swedish Baltic Sea coast, we evaluated the effect of variability in water temperature and depth, and wave exposure for three indicators of environmental status assessment in the Baltic Sea: Abundance of perch, Abundance of Cyprinids, and Abundance of Piscivores. Generalized linear mixed models (GLMM) revealed an overall positive linear relationship between water temperature for all indicators, and overall negative linear relationships to depth and wave exposure. When adjusting indicator values using the parameter estimates from the GLMM models, the variability and 95 % confidence interval for all three indicators were reduced. The adjustment, however, did not have a strong impact on the assessment of the ecological state of the indicator. Our results suggest that adjusting coastal fish indicators to variation in local ambient environmental factors will increase their precision, and hence, the confidence in the assessment of environmental status

Long-term decline in northern pike (Esox lucius L.) populations in the Baltic Sea revealed by recreational angling data

In the Baltic Sea, the large predatory fish northern pike (Esox lucius L.) is important for both recreational fisheries and ecosystem functioning. As existing fishery-independent surveys do not adequately monitor pike populations, a general lack of knowledge on population status and trends poses challenges for management. Here we use recreational angling data as an alternative method to describe pike population development along the Swedish Baltic Sea coast from 1938 onwards and assess the change over time in potential mortality factors by estimating harvest by fisheries and consumption by large predators. Data from a Swedish national register on trophy-sized pike (>12 kg) showed that numbers and maximum sizes peaked in 1990-1995, after which declines in both metrics are evident. In logbooks from a sport fishing club in the Stockholm archipelago, a simultaneous decrease in maximum sizes of pike was observed, together with a decrease in the total number of pike caught per fishing day. Jointly, these data indicate a decline in the abundance of large pike since around 1990. While commercial pike fisheries in the Baltic Sea have decreased continuously since the 1950s, recreational fishing increased after 1985, when Swedish coastal waters were made open access to anglers. The declines in large pike starting in the 1990s could, thus, have been driven by an increase in mortality from recreational fisheries, which at the time primarily practiced catch and kill. Since the 2000s, bag and slot length limits, spawning closures, and a general increase in catch-and-release fishing has reduced the landings of pike in recreational fisheries. Despite these fisheries regulations and higher release rates the decline in catches of large pike has continued, indicating an effect of other mortality factors. The strong growth of grey seal (Halichoerus grypus) and great cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo sinensis) populations suggest that predation pressure on pike has increased over time. In the Stockholm archipelago these two predators were estimated to remove 5-18 times (range based on different diet composition estimates) more pike biomass than total fisheries landings in 2014-2017. To improve the situation for northern pike in the Baltic Sea managers need to consider both fisheries restrictions and measures to decrease predation pressure and increase recruitment. Catch data from recreational fisheries may be used to evaluate such management efforts by providing information on the population development of this keystone species

Feasibility and potential for farming and conditioning of wild fish fed with by-catches in Sweden

Small-scale fisheries face problems with declining fish stocks in poor condition, increasing interactions with seals and cormorants and partly non-efficient distribution systems, resulting in low profitability. One potential method to increase the value of their catch is rear the fish in farms until fish reach a size that render a higher price. This may not only provide a higher value of each animal but also a steadier supply of fish to consumers and retailers. In addition, by-catch of unwanted species may be used as feed ingredient to the farmed fish. This will not only cut the costs for the feed but is also a more sustainable alternative as it will both make use of by-catches that otherwise is discarded, and recirculate nutrients on a regional scale instead of importing new nutrients. Farming of wild caught fish and shellfish (grow-out or capture-based aquaculture) constitute a large part of aquaculture on a global scale. Except for eel is this type of aquaculture still limited in Sweden and Europe, with relatively little development. Here we make an overview of species that could be interesting for farming of wild caught fish, and identify benefits and challenges. The species we find most suitable for further development are cod, perch, whitefish, pike and pikeperch for which we can identify evident benefits of farming. In common for all these species is the need for an efficient feed system to ensure early and rapid weight gain and minimizing initial mortality. We speculate that a feed based on insect larvae could be one way to improve the feeding system for several species of wild caught fish. However, there are ethical and welfare issues related to farming wild born fish. As wild caught fish are not domesticated for life in captivity they can suffer from distress and increased susceptibility and transmissions of disease. Safeguarding the health and welfare of fish in capture-based aquaculture is a key to making it economically feasible, as an increased value for the end-consumers is necessary to compensate the fishermen for the additional costs associated with farming of wild caught fish. In addition, removal of wild fish may also impede natural stock size and recruitment of the natural stocks. Although our aim is to develop a farming system where local by-catches is used as a feed ingredient, local eutrophication effects and water pollutions (feed and fish residues) can cause degradation of local water quality. In conclusion, we find potential for farming of wild caught fish with local-by-catches as a feed ingredient. To be economically feasible there is a need for developing feeding systems, investigate stress responses and ethical and sustainability aspects important for marketing of such products

Influence of reed beds (Phragmites australis) and submerged vegetation on pike (Esox lucius)

Eutrophication and reduced grazing have led to an expansion of the common reed (Phragmites australis) in ar-chipelago areas in the Baltic Sea, while at the same time the composition of submerged vegetation has changed. Although reed is important as nursery habitat for many fish species, extensive emergent vegetation may reduce biodiversity and abundance of predatory fish. Pike (Esox lucius) is a predatory fish whose larvae and young-of -the-year find both food and shelter in reed but use different micro-habitats during different life-stages. Here we investigate the influence of reed and submerged vegetation on abundance and body size of adult pike during the spawning season. We predicted that coastal bays with extensive but heterogeneous reed beds with higher cover of submerged vegetation would have more and larger pike than bays with smaller, homogenous reed belts or with less submerged vegetation. To test these predictions, we estimated abundance and size-structure of adult pike from catches in angling fishing among 22 bays in the Stockholm archipelago at the Swedish Baltic Sea coast. Our analyses show that catches of adult pike were positively associated with both extensive reed beds and cover of rooted submerged vegetation. However, pike size was not correlated with any vegetation variable, but instead increased with wave exposure and bay area. Our study suggests that reed beds and submerged vegetation are important for adult pike during the spawning season, and even the most extensive reed beds had no evident negative effect on pike populations. We could not see any clear relationship between emergent reed habitat and cover of submerged vegetation among the studied bays, and conclude that to maintain pike population during the spawning season it is important that coastal bays have sufficient amounts of both reed beds and rooted submerged vegetation