Desk study on the control of weeds in organic arable and horticultural production systems OF0152

The Ministry is seeking to encourage an expansion of organic farming with a research programme to provide information of benefit to organic farmers and to policy makers. The lack of a reliable and effective weed control system that does not rely on herbicides, has been highlighted as the major problem in limiting the growth of organic farming in the UK. Studies have been made that are aimed specifically at developing organic weed control techniques. There has also been work on non-chemical methods for dealing with weeds in conventional systems. Research in weed biology, population dynamics, and competition modelling from conventional systems also provide valuable information for improving weed control strategies. In addition, research into novel and improved methods of plant husbandry, plant breeding, and the application of new technology in guidance systems etc., can also make a contribution to providing better weed control in organic and conventional systems. However, because of the diverse nature of the research it is not easy to assess the current state of the art for weed control in organic farming systems. The main objective of the present project was to identify and collate the relevant R&D that has been carried out and published on weed control in organic arable and horticultural production systems. The study was also intended to define the current state of the art in non chemical weed control, allowing recommendations to be made for future research work

The use of homeopathic nosodes in the prevention of mastitis in organic dairy herds (OF0186)

Mastitis is the most significant disease affecting the health, welfare and economic productivity of dairy cattle and is recognised by Defra as a major economic and welfare concern. Research into the efficacy of homeopathic treatments and of management control of mastitis on organic dairy farms have both been identified as research priorities in recent Defra funded reviews of organic dairy farming. This study examined the use of a specific mode of homeopathic treatment in the prevention of mastitis and quantified the effect that the year-round, prophylactic use of nosodes, supplied to the cattle in the drinking water, had on the number of clinical cases of mastitis on somatic cell counts within herds. Context and background Organic dairy farming is a significant industry with milk being the largest single organic product in the UK. Organic milk is produced to defined standards which meet the Advisory Committee on Organic Standards (ACOS) criteria. These standards ‘emphasise animal welfare and, by avoiding artificial fertilisers, pesticides and other non-natural chemicals, and prohibiting the routine use of antibiotics and other conventional drugs, also ensure care for the environment, and promote the highest standards of food quality and safety’ (Omsco 2005). As part of the management of organic dairy cattle with reduced use of conventional pharmaceutical treatments, many organic farmers use homeopathic and other complementary therapies on their animals. Mastitis is recognised as the main animal health problem in organic milk production systems (Bennedsgaard et al 2003). Whilst mastitis levels appear to be similar to those found in conventional production (Hovi and Roderick, 2000) specific problem areas in mastitis control under organic management standards have been identified. One of the overall goals of organic animal husbandry is to avoid disease through management, husbandry, breeding and feeding. According to the EC-Regulation No. 1804/1999 governing organic livestock production, animal health management should be based on disease prevention. However, the preventive use of chemically synthesised allopathic medicinal products like dry cow antibiotics is not permitted. In organic units, phytotherapeutic and homeopathic products and trace elements are to be used in preference to antibiotic and prolonged withdrawal periods need to be observed after conventional medicine use. As a consequence of these requirements, organic dairy farmers look for alternatives to conventional therapy and prophylaxis (Hektoen 2004). Homeopathy is widely used for the treatment of mastitis within UK organic dairy herds and prophylactic use of homeopathic nosodes, either continuously or just during housing, is practised on many organic dairy farms and is thought to offer general protection against mastitis and to reduce somatic cell counts (SCC). Research into the effectiveness of homeopathic treatments was one of the most important research requirements identified in a recent MAFF review of animal health within organic herds ( Hovi & Roderick 1999). The range of homeopathic treatments used on farm today is wide, with treatment practices either focussing on the needs of the individual animal, which is known as constitutional treatment and which employs individual remedies, or aimed at groups of animals using specific remedies, or ‘nosodes’, which are considered to be a very specific form of homeopathy - isopathy (iso - all the same, pathy – treatment/exposure). Unlike specific remedies, nosodes do not account for the individual needs of each animal, but create the potential for protective treatment for a herd or group, they are generally applied in drinking water, and may be used on individual animals, usually by vulval spray. Benefit for the sector and for Defra Mastitis is the most significant disease affecting the health, welfare and economic productivity of dairy cattle, and management and control of mastitis is an important facet of practical dairy herd management. Mastitis is recognised by Defra as a major economic and welfare problem in dairy cattle. Research into the efficacy of homeopathic treatments and of management control of mastitis on organic dairy farms have both been identified as research priorities in recent Defra funded reviews of organic dairy farming. The Study Ninety-six farms participated in a double-blind trial to compare a homeopathic nosode and an inactive control treatment (carrier alone). Treatments were at the farm level and took place over a period of 12 months or 24 months (some farms were swapped to the opposite treatment during a second year). The treatments were randomised to each farm by a third party. During the trial, where available, records were collected of farm monthly bulk tank somatic cell count (BMSSC), a monthly cell count based on National Milk Recording data (NMR) and the annual number of cases of mastitis as recorded by the farmer. Additional farm level data were collected and their relationship to the level of mastitis on the farms investigated. Objectives of the Study The study described in this report explores the use of a specific mode of homeopathic treatment, a nosode, in the prevention of mastitis and quantifies the effect that the year-round, prophylactic use of nosodes, supplied to the cattle in the drinking water, had in reducing the number of clinical cases of mastitis and also quantifying any effect that the use of a nosode has on somatic cell counts within herds. • To quantify the effectiveness of the prophylactic use of homeopathic nosodes for the treatment of mastitis in reducing the incidence of clinical mastitis and the concentration of somatic cells in milk. • To survey management practices on organically managed farms. • To investigate associations between the homeopathic treatment, farm management practice and the incidence of different types of mastitis and to provide guidance for mastitis control in organic dairy herds. Materials and methods In testing the efficacy of a homeopathic nosode it was determined that the study should: • Look at a nosode already being commonly used and commercially available. • Not ask for new recording systems to be used for data collection but to use the existing systems which are in place. • Not interfere in the ‘normal’ practises carried out by the farms, by, for example, repeated prompting of farmers to carry out treatments, or ask them to adopt prescribed ways for describing, recording or treating mastitis. There are three commonly used measures of the udder health of milking cows: a) The bulk tank milk somatic cell count (BMSCC, commonly referred to as SCC) gives a count (in 000’s cells / ml) of white cells and desquamated cells shed by the udder. The BMSCC is not an accurate indicator for the presence of clinical mastitis, but may give information on sub-clinical (undetected) mastitis. b) Somatic cell counts for individual cows from farms which subscribe to commercial milk recording services (ICSCC). c) The number of cases of mastitis. The incidence rate for clinical mastitis (IRCM) is the number of distinct cases of mastitis in 100 cows in a year. The response variables that were measured were: • Farmers’ own record of mastitis cases. • Bulk milk SCC. • Individual cow somatic cell records (ICSCC) if the farms were on a milk recording service. • Farmer’s opinion of his/her success in controlling mastitis. • A large number of variables, recorded using a questionnaire at the farm visits, which could influence mastitis and the effectiveness of the treatment. After visiting a number of homeopathic pharmacies, an agreement was made with Crossgates homeopathic pharmacy1, and Freemans Homeopathic Pharmacy2 (Appendix D) to make the individual herd specific nosode remedies for the farms. The trial was double-blinded, with blinding carried out by the creation of a randomly generated list of A and B’s. As each new farm was recruited, it was allocated to the next A or B in the sequence, the farms being allocated to either nosode treatment or control, one by one, in chronological order. Articles were written in the organic press, Organic Farming, and The Turning Worm, inviting farms to take part in the study. It was clear that farms should only join the study voluntarily and would not be ‘cold called’ or pressurised to join. One hundred and four farms responded to the call, and 96 of these farms went on to take part in the study. The 8 farms which declined to take part either went out of milk production before the study started, or changed their minds about inclusion in the trial before the start of the study. The 96 farms were visited and the study introduced. Farmers were issued with a kit to collect milk from high cell count cows for preparation as a nosode. An 80 part questionnaire (Appendix A) was used to gather the information needed to understand the possible factors that may influence mastitis. During visits the farmers were also asked whether they were willing to fill in a self assessment of their personality type. Number of farms recruited = 96 Total farms completing the study period = 88 Number of farm years followed = 206 Average herd size = 101 cows Number of cows followed in the study = 9,680 Number of cows receiving remedy (R) = 4,734 Number of cows receiving control (P) = 4,946 Total cow years followed = 21,580 cow years (Some farms two years, some 3 years) Farms lost during study = 8 (due to sale of the herd, or going out of milk production and into, for example, heifer rearing) Results The data collected were subject to a number of different analyses:- 1. A test for an effect of the homeopathic nosode in reducing the cell count in milk. 2. A test for an effect of the homeopathic nosode in reducing the annual cases of mastitis. 3. An analysis to identify risk factors associated with increased cell count in milk. 4. An analysis to identify risk factors associated with higher levels of mastitis. No effect of nosode in reducing either the incidence of cases of mastitis or the somatic cell counts in the milk were detected. The following risk factors were found to be associated with composite cell counts:- • A decrease in cell count with increased culling of high cell count cows • A decrease in cell count for farms which use complementary therapies on dry cows • A decrease in cell count for farms which use dry cow therapy, including teat sealants, on dry cows • An increased cell count for farms which did not pre-wipe before milking or pre-wiped the teats with a cloth before milking • An increase in cell count for farms which pre-wipe only the udders of cows which are visibly dirty before milking The following risk factors were found to be associated with the number of cases of mastitis:- • Increasing herd yield is associated with increased mastitis case numbers • Increased calving of cows indoors in a calving box was associated with increased numbers of mastitis cases • Use of an in line clot filer was associated with reduced numbers of mastitis cases • Having an abreast parlour (as opposed to a herringbone or rotary parlour) was associated with a reduced numbers of mastitis cases The extent to which the objectives set have been achieved The effectiveness of homeopathic nosodes in treating mastitis and lowering cell count is quantified and described (Objective 1) and the survey results of management practices on organically managed dairy farms are described (Objective 2). Additionally, the associations between homeopathic treatment, farm management practices, mastitis incidence and cell count are quantified (Objective 4) and management controls which show a reduction in mastitis cases or cell counts are identified as risk factors and described in the report (Objective 5). Conclusions • There was no significant effect of the herd specific nosode on either the cell count of milk or the number of cases of mastitis. • That there were strong ‘within farm’ correlations of cell count and cases i.e. between farms, farms tend to stay at the same level of cases and average cell count from year to year. • That there was a characteristic pattern of seasonal change in cell counts (this is already widely recognised). • The study provides useful and interesting statistics on organic dairy farm production. • The study identified an association between decreased cell count and culling for high cell count, the use of complementary dry cow therapy and the use of traditional dry cow therapy. • The study identified an association between increased cell count and not pre-wiping the udder, pre-wiping using a cloth and only pre-wiping dirty cows. • The study identified an association between higher numbers of mastitis cases and higher average yield and also with higher percentage of cows calving in a calving box. • An association was identified between decreased numbers of mastitis cases and the use of an in-line clot filter and also with farms with an abreast parlour (rather than a herring-bone parlour). • Eighty five per cent of farmers in the survey responded that they did believe in non-conventional remedies, and 62 per cent of farmers responded that they used non-conventional remedies on their own family

Organic Centre Wales Factsheet 8: Machinery Rings

This factsheet provides information on Machinery Rings; ‘not for profit’ co-operative societies of farmers and agricultural businesses who have the common aim of reducing machinery and labour costs. Supplier members benefit by spreading their machinery costs over a larger area; other members are able to reduce their capital investments in labour and machinery while at the same time having access to modern machinery when they need it. Machinery Rings provide the logistical and administrative structure to empower co-operation. They also act as an information hub and a signposting centre between members

Organic Centre Wales Factsheet 16: CAP reform and organic farming I

The CAP Reform agreement reached in Luxembourg on 26th June 2003 has significant implications for all producers. This factsheet concentrates on aspects of the reform package of specific interest to organic producers in Wales – for further details of the full agreement and subsequent developments, see the following websites: www.wales.gov.uk and http://www.europa.eu.int/comm/agriculture/index_en.htm. The agreement gave significant freedom to member states and regions as to how it is implemented, so the information contained in this factsheet can only be indicative of current thinking – the Welsh Assembly Government will be consulting on specific remaining implementation proposals in due course. In general, the proposals are welcome and should be helpful for the organic sector. Organic Centre Wales is participating in the Assembly’s main CAP reform steering committee as part of this process

Organic Centre Wales Factsheet 15: Upland organic beef and sheep production: financial performance

This factsheet covers financial performance of upland organic beef and sheep production. Survey data illustrates that while organic farms can achieve similar incomes to conventional, the finances for both organic and conventional groups are at best marginal, and the models illustrate the importance of support payments. Organic premium prices are important to maintain relative incomes, but are less so here compared with dairy and arable holdings. The main factors that will influence performance are the increased role of cattle, with implications for housing and winter feed provision, as well as the emphasis on closed flocks and herds and increase on feeds produced on farm to avoid purchasing expensive conserved forage. In addition, upland farmers should consider whether agri-environment payments should contribute to income

Advantages and disadvantages of different break crops in organic grass/arable rotations (OF0143)

This is the final report of Defra project OF0143. Choice of break crops to grow in addition to cereals and the fertility building phase is crucial to the agronomic and economic success of organic arable rotations. There are four specific functions that a break crop may perform, namely: addition, conservation and cycling of nutrients; pest and/or disease control; weed control and improvement in soil physical characteristics. Individual break crops may perform one or several of these functions. A good break crop must also produce satisfactory yields, be of marketable quality and produce an economic return for the farmer. This project analysed the overall suitability of new break crops by simultaneous assessment of key agronomic, economic and environmental factors. The objectives of the project (in brief) were as follows: 1. To review the scientific literature in order to evaluate known agronomic advantages and disadvantages of 15 potential break crops for organic grass/arable rotations. 2. To evaluate the economic potential of these 15 crops. 3. To assess the suitability of nine different break crops (and oat control) grown between winter wheat and spring barley in small scale experimental plots in seven replicated field trials throughout the UK. 4. To evaluate a further diversified arable/grass rotation which includes three break crops (potato, carrot and swede) with and without grazing livestock. 5. To assess consumer acceptability, organoleptic characteristics and market potential of crops produced in the large scale field trials described under Objective 4. Main project findings • Yields of individual break crop varied greatly between the seven different trials • Break crop yields were strongly correlated with soil nutrient concentrations • Cereal yields were affected more by soil fertility status than by preceding break crop • Over 50% of break crops were deficient in N, P and/or K (according to established values for nutrient concentrations for healthy crops) with N deficiency being the most common. Subsequent cereal crops mostly had adequate nutrient concentrations, although some were deficient in trace elements • Break crops suffered varying degrees of pest and disease pressure. Hemp and linola had almost no recorded pest/disease damage at any site. Swede, rape and potato were severely affected by pests and/or diseases on most sites • Different weed burdens were recorded in different break crops. Limited meaningful conclusions can be drawn from this result for five of the crops tested (bean, carrot, potato, swede, sugar beet), due to the different weed control practices at different trial sites. • Significantly lower weed burdens were recorded in cereals following hemp and linola. • The break crops with the highest potential net margin grown in this study were carrot, swede and potato. • The break crops with the lowest net margins based on 1999 prices were sugar beet and oilseed rape (osr price included an assumed 50% organic premium); organic premiums are now (2002) available for sugar beet. • Crop quality and yields (and therefore economic returns) from carrot and potato from field scale trials run on a commercial organic farm were much higher than those from small scale plot trials • All samples of marketable crop (carrot and potato) from the small scale plot trials and field scale trials were classed as acceptable for human consumption under Tesco's current quality standards for organic produce. The executive summary at the start of the main report includes a summary of the properties of the nine test break crops Further work is required in order to investigate some of the less well-documented break crop characteristics such as allelopathy (hemp, lupin). It is possible that new varieties bred specifically for organic agriculture may perform better than the varieties used here and additional research is required to investigate this potential. Long-term trials are also needed if reliable conclusions are to be reached on the performance of break crops in different UK climatic areas and soil types

Organic fruit production: Review of current practice and knowledge (OF0150)

This is the final report of Defra project OF0150 REASONS FOR STUDY AND KEY OBJECTIVES. There is a strong demand for organic fruit in the UK but the majority of this is met by imports. The main constraint on home production is a shortage of growers with sufficient acreage to supply wholesalers and supermarkets. The Organic Fruit Focus Group identified lack of technical information and research as a major barrier to growers considering conversion. The main aim of the present study was to gather technical information on organic growing techniques from growers, advisors and researchers from both the UK and abroad. Research priorities were also identified. Crops reviewed were apples, pears, strawberries, currants, gooseberries and raspberries. MAIN FINDINGS. • Research review. The most information was found on organic apple and strawberry production. Much of it was obtained by contacting researchers and advisors and is unrefereed literature e.g. conference proceedings, annual reports, advisory booklets and press articles. Relevant research from conventional systems was also reviewed. • Advisory literature from abroad. The most useful literature was from FiBL in Switzerland, LBI in the Netherlands and The Danish Agricultural Advisory Centre. • Research and development programmes abroad are producing relevant information of immediate use to UK growers. • Drafts of two booklets have been written during the review by combining several sources of information, i.e. 'Organic apples - pest and disease management' and 'Organic strawberry production - a growers guide' (see appendix 2 & 3) • Apples and pears. Technical problems are numerous but organic apple production can be profitable mainly because there is a market for organic class II fruit. However the conversion period is a major financial and technical barrier. Research priorities were identified, these included a) variety trials, b) scab control, c) studies on weed control/water/nutrients e.g. management of the orchard alleyways and the tree strip to encourage beneficial insects, manipulate nutrient supply and provide orchard access d) pest control e.g. optimising the use of floral strips to prevent pest epidemics and specific control methods for numerous major pests. • Strawberries. These are considered easier to grow. Suitable systems for weed control have been developed. The main problems and research priorities are a) Botrytis, b) powdery mildew, c) soil borne diseases (Verticillium and Phytophthora), d) encouraging beneficials for pest control e) optimising nutrient supply. • Raspberries, blackcurrants and gooseberries. Few growers with reasonable acreage were identified making it difficult to draw comprehensive conclusions. However, weed control is a major problem. Research priorities include management of the crop pathways and optimising the use of mulches. An important pest is raspberry beetle. Various other pests could become a problem if acreage is increased. TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER. Four possible avenues of dissemination were identified. • Collaboration with FiBL in Switzerland to produce adapted translations of grower booklets • Production of booklets through the Soil Association's Technical Guides for Organic Food Production • More immediate dissemination of 'less glossy' leaflets through the Organic Fruit Focus Group • Seminar/workshop/farm walk collaborative events between HDRA, Soil Association, Elm Farm Research Centre, Organic Fruit Focus Group and East Malling Research Association. Two events are already planned. ISSUES RELATED TO POLICY, ORGANIC STANDARDS AND PESTICIDE REGISTRATION a)The three year conversion period, in both top fruit and cane and bush fruit, is a major financial barrier. b) The unpredictable nature of fruit production may mean that financial support after conversion could be required to increase grower confidence. c) Diversification of business enterprise for top fruit could be encouraged. d) Long term and achievable standards of fruit quality should be agreed between supermarkets and growers. e) Products which could be important for organic fruit production were identified for consideration by PSD and/or UKROFS. f) Strategies for the propagation of organic plants for all fruit crops need to be developed; this could be done within a European context for some crops where there are no licensed propagators in the UK. g) Some tentative evidence suggests that the measures used to encourage beneficial fauna for pest control in organic orchards and the absence of soil sterilants in organic soft fruit production are resulting in species diversification; this needs to be explored further

Organic Centre Wales Factsheet 19: Building markets for Welsh organic horticulture

This factsheet contains advice for organic Welsh growers. Areas covered include, challenges facing Welsh growers, market outlets, producer and marketing groups working together, horticultural prices and a list of sources for further information and advice