Differences between financial systems in Europe : consequences for EMU

Major differences between national financial systems might make a common monetary policy difficult. As within Europe, Germany and the United Kingdom differ most with respect to their financial systems, the present paper addresses its topic under the assumption that the United Kingdom is already a part of EMU. Employing a comprehensive concept of a financial system, the author shows that there are indeed profound differences between the national financial systems of Germany and the United Kingdom. But he argues that these differences are not likely to create great problems for a common monetary policy. In the context of the present paper, one important difference between the two financial systems refers to the structure of the respective financial sector and, as a consequence, to the strength with which a given monetary policy impulse set by the central bank is passed on to the financial sector. The other important difference refers to the typical relationship between the banks and the business sector in each country which determines to what extent the financial sectors and especially the banks pass on pressure exerted on them by a monetary policy authority to their clients in their national business sector. In Germany, the central bank has a stronger influence on the financial sector than in England, while, for systemic reasons, German banks tend to soften monetary policy pressures on their customers more than British banks do. As far as the transmission of a restrictive monetary policy of the ECB to the real economy is concerned, these two differences tend to offset each other. This is good news for the advocates of a monetary union as it eases the task of the ECB when it comes to determining the strength of its monetary policy measures

The role of Economic Instruments in Integrating Environmental Policy with Transport Policy in Hungary

After a short survey on the role of the economic instruments that try to implement environmental policy into transport policy in Hungary, we have to make some simple statements. The environmental policy that should be integrated with transport policy is exists or at least the more essential outlines and directions are clear. The acceptation of such changes are more developed in urban transport policy level, and less in countrywide transport policy level. But even this level the acceptation is much better than in the practice, first of all in cases of bigger investments. The great motorway investments or metro investments practically follow their own way, even there are ideologies to present that these investments serve the general environment and that is why they use public money to the construction. Relative to these expenses and future harms all other environmental improvements in the transport sector can be considered as marginal. There is also a danger, that environmental measurements become a kind of devise by what the greatest investors able to buy the social support to get support to their above-mentioned investments. In the same time there is a significant development in the recognition of the importance of environmental arguments and also in measures that influence operation and through that present and short-term future environment. Many economic instruments belong to that category, like charges that are able to make more expensive polluting goods on one side and help with supplying vehicles or motors of better technology on the other. There is also an important role of that tools, that those introduce them begins to be proud of it and considers himself as a pro-environment warrior. We can only hope, that this self image determines also further thinking and acting. We distinguished three elements of the Hungarian circumstances: the global lessons, the heritage of the relative underdevelopments and the heritage of the special past of state socialism, but these elements are also mirror of existing thinking in the sector. While deregulation and the free market can cause significant changes within each structure, it is hardly able to solve the transition from one structure to another. Those educated in command economy ("more transport with less cost") could understand deregulation as free use of deteriorated and outmoded vehicles and infrastructure and that tendency evidentally needs regulations to avoid that outcome. Similarly those educated in market economy ("better transport with less cost") would use economic tools to improve phasis effectivity (less fuel, less time, less emission) hardly understanding that in long term even a theoretic 0-emission, 0-consumption 0-cost car would cause enormous environmental problems and unbearable life conditions. Only those able to look behind economic targets thinking macro level and long term harmonise really environment and sector economy on policy level ("better life with less transport") thus offering a frame where the economic instruments are able to promote real harmonisation targets

Comparative advantage and the cross-section of business cycles

Business cycles are both less volatile and more synchronized with the world cycle in rich countries than in poor ones. We develop two alternative explanations based on the idea that comparative advantage causes rich countries to specialize in industries that use new technologies operated by skilled workers, while poor countries specialize in industries that use traditional technologies operated by unskilled workers. Since new technologies are difficult to imitate, the industries of rich countries enjoy more market power and face more inelastic product demands than those of poor countries. Since skilled workers are less likely to exit employment as a result of changes in economic conditions, industries in rich countries face more inelastic labour supplies than those of poor countries. We show that either asymmetry in industry characteristics can generate cross-country differences in business cycles that resemble those we observe in the data.Asymmetries, comparative advantage, labour skills, technology

Information theory and the role of intermediaries in corporate governance

We investigate the connection between corporate governance system configurations and the role of intermediaries in the respective systems from a informational perspective. Building on the economics of information we show that it is meaningful to distinguish between internalisation and externalisation as two fundamentally different ways of dealing with information in corporate governance systems. This lays the groundwork for a description of two types of corporate governance systems, i.e. insider control system and outsider control system, in which we focus on the distinctive role of intermediaries in the production and use of information. It will be argued that internalisation is the prevailing mode of information processing in insider control system while externalisation dominates in outsider control system. We also discuss shortly the interrelations between the prevailing corporate governance system and types of activities or industry structures supported

The Global Organic Food Market and Transformation Deductive Definition of Empiric Indicators The Demand Explanation The Institutional Explanation & Comparative Country Report: Denmark versus Sweden

The present study is part of the project “Public Policies and Demand for Organic Food: An International Comparison of Policy Effects and Policy Determinants” (COP). It is carried out in WP II that concerns the supply-side policies and demand. In the WP it has been an initial task to formulate a theoretical approach as the conceptual framework to be used in comparative studies. The present study represents the first contribution to apply the conceptual framework in an empirical context and here it is the evolution of the organic sectors in Denmark and Sweden that are compared. The study is searching for indicators to explain which factors can explain increase in organic foods production and consumption. It reaches the conclusion that the picture concerning the demand side is very blurred and that it is impossible to reveal which elements are crucial. However, the study also concludes that institutional design and set up seem to be rather crucial for the evolution of the organic sector

Rethinking International Subsidy Rules. Bertelsmann Working Paper 28/02/2020

Geo-economic tensions and global collective action problems call for international cooperation to revise and de-velop rules to guide both the use of domestic subsidies and responses by governments to cross-border competition spillover effects. Current WTO rules that divide all subsidies into either prohibited or actionable cate-gories are no longer fit for purpose. Piecemeal efforts in preferential trade agreements and bi- or trilateral configurations offer a basis on which to build, but are too narrow in scope and focus. Addressing the spillover ef-fects of subsidies could start with launching a work program at the 12th Ministerial Conference of the WTO to mobilize an epistemic community concerned with subsidy policies, tasked with building a more solid evidence base on the magnitude, purpose and effects of subsidy policies

Employee Compensation: Research and Practice

[Excerpt] An organization has the potential to remain viable only so long as its members choose to participate and engage in necessary role behaviors (March & Simon, 1958; Katz & Kahn, 1966). To elicit these contributions, an organization must provide inducements that are of value to its members. This exchange or transaction process is at the core of the employment relationship and can be viewed as a type of contract, explicit or implicit, that imposes reciprocal obligations on the parties (Barnard, 1936; Simon, 1951; Williamson, 1975; Rousseau, 1990). At the heart of that exchange are decisions by employers and employees regarding compensation

Spatial Disparities in Developing Countries: Cities, Regions and International Trade

Spatial inequality in developing countries is due to the natural advantages of some regions relative to others and to the presence of agglomeration forces, leading to clustering of activity. This paper reviews and develops some simple models that capture these first and second nature economic geographies. The presence of increasing returns to scale in cities leads to urban structures that are not optimally sized. This depresses the return to job creation, possibly retarding development. Looking at the wider regional structure, development can be associated with large shifts in the location of activity as industry goes from being inward looking to being export oriented.cities, spatial disparities, urbanisation, developing countries

The legal framework for corporate governance: explaining the development of contract law in Germany and the United States

How are new forms of industrial organization accommodated into a countryslegal frameworks, and what effect does this have on the ability of firms toinnovate. Variations in the broad institutional organization of the German andUS political economies result in different processes of contract lawmodernization in the two countries, with important implications for innovation trajectories. The German institutional infrastructure encourages firms todevelop cooperative diversified quality production (DQP) inter-firm strategies.This is promoted through highly regulative contract laws and the existence ofstrong trade associations that firms engage to create standardized industryframeworks. These contracting arrangements allow the diffusion ofstandardized governance structures showing firms how to create rules neededto manage complex new forms of organization. While strongly supporting DQPstrategies and discouraging opportunistic product market strategies, Germanpatterns of contract law regulation place important constraints against moreinnovative product market strategies. In the United States legal resources aredecentralized across firms, trade associations have few law-makingcompetencies, and courts do not regulate the distribution of risks across firms.Contractual frameworks are developed on a firm-by-firm basis and slowlyaccommodated within the legal system through the generation of courtprecedent. This system encourages radical innovation in the law, an importantprerequisite for innovative product market strategies more generally. However,the paper shows that a necessary trade-off of legal innovation in the US is thatcourts cannot implement German-style contract law regulation to constrainopportunism, while the decentralization of legal resource inhibits the creation ofstandardized contractual frameworks needed for DQP strategies. Through anextensive game theory analysis of bargaining between courts and large firms,the paper explains why these equilibria are maintained, despite strong incentives in the German case for some large firms to deviate. -- Wie sind neue Formen industrieller Organisation an die rechtliche Verfaßtheiteines Landes angepaßt und welche Folgen hat dies für die Innovationsfähigkeitvon Unternehmen . Generelle Unterschiede in der institutionellen Organisationder jeweiligen politischen Ökonomie in Deutschland und in den USA führen zu unterschiedlichen Formen der Modernisierung des Vertragsrechts in beidenLändern. Dies hat wichtige Auswirkungen auf den Typus der Innovations-Entwicklung.Die spezifische Ausprägung des Institutionengefüges in Deutschlandbegünstigt vor allem eine kooperativ angelegte diversifizierteQualitätsproduktion (DQP), an der mehrere Unternehmen beteiligt sind. Dieswird gestützt durch ein hochreguliertes Vertragsrecht und starkeGewerkschaften; die Verbände nutzen dies, um für alle Unternehmen geltendeRegelungen zu entwickeln. Diese Art, vertragliche Vereinbarungen zuentwickeln und zu gestalten, führt zu einer allmählichen Verbreitung allgemeingültiger Governance-Strukturen, durch die die Unternehmen erfahren, wie sie Regelungen entwickeln können, um neue, komplexe Formen der Zusammenarbeit zu managen. Das in Deutschland verbreitete Vertragsrecht erweist sich als vorteilhaft für DQP-Strategien und als hinderlich für kurzfristigorientierte Produktmarktstrategien; es führt aber auch zu schwerwiegenden Einschränkungen bei der Entwicklung innovationsorientierter Produktmarktstrategien.In den USA ist die juristische Kompetenz, gerade auch, was die Klärung juristischer Grundsatzfragen angeht, auf viele Unternehmen verteilt.Gewerkschaften haben nur geringe Möglichkeiten, die Gesetzgebung zubeeinflussen und die Gerichte regulieren nicht, wie die Risiken aus derZusammenarbeit von Unternehmen aufgeteilt werden. Die rechtlichen Rahmungen vertraglicher Vereinbarungen werden fallweise in Unternehmenentwickelt; gerichtliche Musterentscheidungen passen sie dann Schritt fürSchritt an die bestehenden gesetzlichen Regeln an. Dies begünstigt radikalereInnovationen in der Gesetzgebung; sie wiederum sind generell eine wichtige Voraussetzung für innovative Produktmarktstrategien. In dem Papier wird gezeigt, daß der schnellen Innovationskraft des amerikanischenGesetzgebungssystems als Nachteil gegenübersteht, daß die Gerichte keine Regulierungen einführen können, die dem in Deutschland entwickelten Vertragsrecht vergleichbar und durch das sehr schnelle, quasi opportunistische Marktorientierungen einzuschränken wären. Die Dezentralisierung juristischerKompetenz in den USA verhindert die Schaffung eines allgemein gültigenrechtlichen Rahmens, der wiederum Voraussetzung für eine diversifizierte Qualitätsproduktion ist.Durch eine ausführliche spieltheoretische Analyse von Aushandlungsprozessen zwischen Großunternehmen und Gerichten wirderklärt, warum sich die jeweils spezifischen Gleichgewichtssituationen erhalten, auch wenn es in Deutschland für einige Großunternehmen starke Anreize gibt, davon abzuweichen.