Reversible Data Hiding for DNA Sequence Using Multilevel Histogram Shifting

A large number of studies have examined DNA storage to achieve information hiding in DNA sequences with DNA computing technology. However, most data hiding methods are irreversible in that the original DNA sequence cannot be recovered from the watermarked DNA sequence. This study presents reversible data hiding methods based on multilevel histogram shifting to prevent biological mutations, preserve sequence length, increase watermark capacity, and facilitate blind detection/recovery. The main features of our method are as follows. First, we encode a sequence of nucleotide bases with four-character symbols into integer values using the numeric order. Second, we embed multiple bits in each integer value by multilevel histogram shifting of noncircular type (NHS) and circular type (CHS). Third, we prevent the generation of false start/stop codons by verifying whether a start/stop codon is included in an integer value or between adjacent integer values. The results of our experiments confirmed that the NHS- and CHS-based methods have higher watermark capacities than conventional methods in terms of supplementary data used for decoding. Moreover, unlike conventional methods, our methods do not generate false start/stop codons

DNA watermarks in non-coding regulatory sequences

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Stabilizing synthetic data in the DNA of living organisms

Data-encoding synthetic DNA, inserted into the genome of a living organism, is thought to be more robust than the current media. Because the living genome is duplicated and copied into new generations, one of the merits of using DNA material is long-term data storage within heritable media. A disadvantage of this approach is that encoded data can be unexpectedly broken by mutation, deletion, and insertion of DNA, which occurs naturally during evolution and prolongation, or laboratory experiments. For this reason, several information theory-based approaches have been developed as an error check of broken DNA data in order to achieve data durability. These approaches cannot efficiently recover badly damaged data-encoding DNA. We recently developed a DNA data-storage approach based on the multiple sequence alignment method to achieve a high level of data durability. In this paper, we overview this technology and discuss strategies for optimal application of this approach

Barnekow A: Watermarking sexually reproducing diploid organisms

ABSTRACT Summary: DNA watermarks are used for hiding messages or for authenticating genetically modified organisms. Recently we presented an algorithm called DNA-Crypt for generating DNA based watermarks that can be integrated into the genome by using the characteristics of the degenerative genetic code. DNA-Crypt generates the watermark by replacing single bases and thus creating synonymous codons that encrypt the hidden information. Mutations within the integrated DNA sequence can be corrected using several mutation correction codes, to keep the hidden information intact. This method has successfully been tested in asexually replicating organisms like bacteria or yeast, where the watermark is duplicated with every cell division. It has been shown that DNA watermarks produced by DNA-Crypt do not influence the transcription or translation of a protein. In sexually reproducing diploid organisms, additional problems can occur, e.g. recombination events can destroy hidden information. Using population predictions as well as statistical analyses we identified a coupled Y-chromosomal/mitochondrial DNA watermarking procedure as the most appropriate for diploid organisms. We developed a mitochondria adapted version of DNA-Crypt, which is called Project Mito that can be used in combination with the original progam