Geological Object Recognition in Extraterrestrial Environments

On July 4 1997, the landing of NASA’s Pathnder probe and its rover Sojourner marked the beginning of a new era in space exploration; robots with the ability to move have made up the vanguard of human extraterrestrial exploration ever since. With Sojourners landing, for the rst time, a ground traversing robot was at a distance too far from earth to make direct human control practical. This has given rise to the development of autonomous systems to improve the e?ciency of these robots,in both their ability to move,and their ability to make decisions regarding their environment. Computer Vision comprises a large part of these autonomous systems, and in the course of performing these tasks a large number of images are taken for the purpose of navigation. The limited nature of the current Deep Space Network means that a majority of these images are never seen by human eyes. This work explores the possibility of using these images to target certain features by using a combination of three AdaBoost algorithms and established image feature approaches to help prioritize interesting subjects from an ever growing data set of imaging data

Oregon Natural Areas Plan

The rich diversity of ecosystems and native plants and animals is one of Oregon\u27s most distinctive and valued qualities. Our state contains rain forests, dry forests, oak woodlands, alpine meadows, prairies, deserts, marshes, estuaries, dunes, rocky headlands, lakes and streams. There are a number of reasons it is so diverse. First are the extremes of climate, with rainfall ranging from over 200 inches a year along Oregon’s north coast, to less than 7 inches a year in the Alvord Desert, and temperatures from the very mild banana belt along the coast near the California border to the extremes of the high alpine areas of the Wallowa Mountains. Secondly, Oregon is diverse geographically and geologically, having ancient serpentine landscapes in the Siskiyou Mountains and recent volcanics in the Cascades and the deepest gorge in North America at Hells Canyon. Lastly, Oregon is a floristic crossroads, with arctic boreal species finding their southern limit, Rocky Mountain species common in northeastern Oregon, Great Basin species in southeastern Oregon, and California coastal and Sierra species in the southwest, all mixing with native northwestern taxa to create a wide array of habitats

Gazing at the Solar System: Capturing the Evolution of Dunes, Faults, Volcanoes, and Ice from Space

Gazing imaging holds promise for improved understanding of surface characteristics and processes of Earth and solar system bodies. Evolution of earthquake fault zones, migration of sand dunes, and retreat of ice masses can be understood by observing changing features over time. To gaze or stare means to look steadily, intently, and with fixed attention, offering the ability to probe the characteristics of a target deeply, allowing retrieval of 3D structure and changes on fine and coarse scales. Observing surface reflectance and 3D structure from multiple perspectives allows for a more complete view of a surface than conventional remote imaging. A gaze from low Earth orbit (LEO) could last several minutes allowing for video capture of dynamic processes. Repeat passes enable monitoring time scales of days to years. Numerous vantage points are available during a gaze (Figure 1). Features in the scene are projected into each image frame enabling the recovery of dense 3D structure. The recovery is robust to errors in the spacecraft position and attitude knowledge, because features are from different perspectives. The combination of a varying look angle and the solar illumination allows recovering texture and reflectance properties and permits the separation of atmospheric effects. Applications are numerous and diverse, including, for example, glacier and ice sheet flux, sand dune migration, geohazards from earthquakes, volcanoes, landslides, rivers and floods, animal migrations, ecosystem changes, geysers on Enceladus, or ice structure on Europa. The Keck Institute for Space Studies (KISS) hosted a workshop in June of 2014 to explore opportunities and challenges of gazing imaging. The goals of the workshop were to develop and discuss the broad scientific questions that can be addressed using spaceborne gazing, specific types of targets and applications, the resolution and spectral bands needed to achieve the science objectives, and possible instrument configurations for future missions. The workshop participants found that gazing imaging offers the ability to measure morphology, composition, and reflectance simultaneously and to measure their variability over time. Gazing imaging can be applied to better understand the consequences of climate change and natural hazards processes, through the study of continuous and episodic processes in both domains

Sensor Independent Deep Learning for Detection Tasks with Optical Satellites

The design of optical satellite sensors varies widely, and this variety is mirrored in the data they produce. Deep learning has become a popular method for automating tasks in remote sensing, but currently it is ill-equipped to deal with this diversity of satellite data. In this work, sensor independent deep learning models are proposed, which are able to ingest data from multiple satellites without retraining. This strategy is applied to two tasks in remote sensing: cloud masking and crater detection. For cloud masking, a new dataset---the largest ever to date with respect to the number of scenes---is created for Sentinel-2. Combination of this with other datasets from the Landsat missions results in a state-of-the-art deep learning model, capable of masking clouds on a wide array of satellites, including ones it was not trained on. For small crater detection on Mars, a dataset is also produced, and state-of-the-art deep learning approaches are compared. By combining datasets from sensors with different resolutions, a highly accurate sensor independent model is trained. This is used to produce the largest ever database of crater detections for any solar system body, comprising 5.5 million craters across Isidis Planitia, Mars using CTX imagery. Novel geospatial statistical techniques are used to explore this database of small craters, finding evidence for large populations of distant secondary impacts. Across these problems, sensor independence is shown to offer unique benefits, both regarding model performance and scientific outcomes, and in the future can aid in many problems relating to data fusion, time series analysis, and on-board applications. Further work on a wider range of problems is needed to determine the generalisability of the proposed strategies for sensor independence, and extension from optical sensors to other kinds of remote sensing instruments could expand the possible applications of this new technique

An investigation into the comparative utility of color infrared aerial photography and LANDSAT data for detailed surface cover type mapping within Crater Lake National Park, Oregon

The identification and mapping of surface cover types within Crater Lake National Park, Oregon, has been effectively completed through the utilization of LANDSAT digital data and NASA U-2 color infrared aerial photography. Classification of LANDSAT data for surface cover type identification and mapping was accomplished through use of the Interactive Digital Image Manipulation System (IDIMS) which provided enormous classification flexibility due to the interactive capability of IDIMS and its color video display. LANDSAT data extraction techniques employed in this research include the generation of grayscales; density slice; spectral reflectance plots versus pixel frequency and LANDSAT bands for low sun angle and medium to high sun angle LANDSAT digital tape dates; spectral relationship plots; and control clustering of training set selection. The use of these techniques produced training statistics which show "good" class discrimination for study area classification. A covariance matrix, weighted divergence, and distance between clusters were generated for each of the 59 training classes to determine if any of the classes were statistically related and should be combined. Slope angle, slope aspect, and surface cover type variation, and to a lesser degree, crown size and crown density are the main environmental factors which account for spectral reflectance variation of surface cover types within Crater Lake National Park. Through an understanding of the influence of environmental factors in the reflectance value of surface cover types, one can evaluate the quality of training statistics and the location of training areas in order to reduce mis-classification or non-classification possibilities. A regression analysis, analysis of variance, T-values, F-values, and beta values were used to determine the relative degree that certain environmental factors influence the spectral reflectance of surface cover types producing a change in the mean reflectance of surface cover types per LANDSAT band. LANDSAT classification accuracy levels for 12 major surface cover types within Crater Lake National Park range from 84 to 98 percent. Accuracy levels are inversely related to the level of detail sought and obtained. LANDSAT's primary advantages over NASA U-2 color infrared aerial photography for surface cover type identification and mapping include: repetitive coverage; computer compatibility of data without photographic digitizing; multi-spectral scanner capability; and the further extension of wavelengths into the near infrared. The NASA U-2 aerial photography's primary advantages (over LANDSAT) for surface cover type identification and mapping include: increased scale; greater resolution; and stereoscopic viewing. Stereoscopic viewing was accomplished through use of an Old Delft Scanning stereoscope which provided 1.5 to 4.5 magnification. "Ground truth" is the link between LANDSAT data, aerial photography, and actual ground conditions. "Ground truth" should measure and/or observe surface cover types and parameters which are capable of influencing the spectral reflectance as detected by LANDSAT. Geologic activity, soil conditions, vegetation, and climate have in the past and do in the present influence the spectral reflectance of surface cover types within Crater Lake National Park, Oregon

Every Day Is Fire Day: A Study of Historic Fire Towers and Lookout Life in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park

When the Great Smoky Mountains National Park (GRSM) was established in 1931, complete fire suppression was the fire management philosophy and goal in all national parks and forests across the country. Debris and undergrowth was cleared, fire breaks and manways were created, and thousands of fire towers were constructed. The young men of the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) provided much of the manpower to complete these tasks, and the group\u27s signature rustic style left its mark on structures throughout the park. Ten towers and nine lookout cabins were built in GRSM between 1934 and 1939, and these sites were manned by lookouts during the two annual fire seasons for decades. The lookout jobs were isolated positions that required the patience to watch the forests daily from sunrise to sunset and the agility to be on alert at a moment\u27s notice during a lightning storm. In the 1970s, fire management techniques and approaches to fire patrol changed, and the fire towers in GRSM were abandoned. Over the next decade, all but four of the towers and one of the cabins were removed from the park. This thesis acknowledges the importance of the utilitarian structures themselves and cultural history they represent and takes into consideration the ever-changing preservation ethic of the National Park Service (NPS). NPS has revised their position from removing towers to avoid the stewardship burden of these historic properties to actively pursuing a National Register listing for all extant towers and lookout cabins within its boundaries. This thesis compiles the evidence for such a pursuit while exploring the cultural and architectural significance of these structures

Little Boxes on the Hillside: An Inventory and Analysis of Wildfire Lookout Structures in the Pacific Northwest Region 06 of the United States Forest Service

374 pagesFire watchmen have been employed by the United States Government to serve as guardians over the Nation's timber since before the establishment of the USDA Forest Service, originally the National Forest Reserves, at the turn of the 20th Century. Very early in its history, the Forest Service realized the value of providing an enclosed space or shelter for their firewatchers. This led to the advent of two types of lookout structures-Live-in and Observation-only-expressed through 16 different architectural styles. With the advancement of technology, it is no longer economically feasible for the Forest Service to employ fire watchmen at every established patrol point. Steadily over time, the Forest Service began to abandon or decommission their lookout structures while at the same time converted certain lookouts into profitable recreation rentals or communication relay sites. Several different departments and specialties within the Forest Service actively manage lookout structures including Fire, Recreation, Heritage, Facilities, and Special Uses; however, Region 6 does not have the means to manage every lookout. The goal of this Terminal Project is to provide a single document that all departments within the Forest Service can use to make a holistic assessment of the remaining lookout structures and use as a tool to determine which lookouts to invest in, which ones to nominate for inclusion in the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP), and which ones to decommission. This is achieved through three means by providing: 1) An historic context that outlines the history and character defining features for the different lookout styles, 2) An inventory for all 17 Forest units, and 3) Metrics to help guide preservation efforts and maximize use. The Pacific Northwest Region (Region 6) of the Forest Service has 173 standing lookouts within its administrative boundary-52 of which are in Washington, 119 in Oregon, and two in Idaho. Of the 173 total lookouts, only 139 are actively managed

Machine learning methods for discriminating natural targets in seabed imagery

The research in this thesis concerns feature-based machine learning processes and methods for discriminating qualitative natural targets in seabed imagery. The applications considered, typically involve time-consuming manual processing stages in an industrial setting. An aim of the research is to facilitate a means of assisting human analysts by expediting the tedious interpretative tasks, using machine methods. Some novel approaches are devised and investigated for solving the application problems. These investigations are compartmentalised in four coherent case studies linked by common underlying technical themes and methods. The first study addresses pockmark discrimination in a digital bathymetry model. Manual identification and mapping of even a relatively small number of these landform objects is an expensive process. A novel, supervised machine learning approach to automating the task is presented. The process maps the boundaries of ≈ 2000 pockmarks in seconds - a task that would take days for a human analyst to complete. The second case study investigates different feature creation methods for automatically discriminating sidescan sonar image textures characteristic of Sabellaria spinulosa colonisation. Results from a comparison of several textural feature creation methods on sonar waterfall imagery show that Gabor filter banks yield some of the best results. A further empirical investigation into the filter bank features created on sonar mosaic imagery leads to the identification of a useful configuration and filter parameter ranges for discriminating the target textures in the imagery. Feature saliency estimation is a vital stage in the machine process. Case study three concerns distance measures for the evaluation and ranking of features on sonar imagery. Two novel consensus methods for creating a more robust ranking are proposed. Experimental results show that the consensus methods can improve robustness over a range of feature parameterisations and various seabed texture classification tasks. The final case study is more qualitative in nature and brings together a number of ideas, applied to the classification of target regions in real-world sonar mosaic imagery. A number of technical challenges arose and these were surmounted by devising a novel, hybrid unsupervised method. This fully automated machine approach was compared with a supervised approach in an application to the problem of image-based sediment type discrimination. The hybrid unsupervised method produces a plausible class map in a few minutes of processing time. It is concluded that the versatile, novel process should be generalisable to the discrimination of other subjective natural targets in real-world seabed imagery, such as Sabellaria textures and pockmarks (with appropriate features and feature tuning.) Further, the full automation of pockmark and Sabellaria discrimination is feasible within this framework

Volatile metal degassing from volcanoes: source processes, atmospheric transport and deposition

Volcanoes emit metal and metalloid elements in the gas phase at rates that are comparable to industrial emissions of entire countries or regions. These elements (e.g., Cu, Zn, Pb, As, Se), collectively referred to as ‘metal pollutants’ or ‘heavy metals’, can be critical nutrients at low levels, but sustained exposure has been connected with high incidence of diseases such as multiple sclerosis and some cancers in the communities living around volcanoes. This thesis examines the systematics of volcanogenic trace element degassing in multiple tectonic settings (arcs, ocean islands, and continental rifts) and outgassing environments (magmatic vents and lava-seawater interactions), and extends to the compositional evolution of volcanic plumes in the atmosphere. Starting within the magmatic system, in Chapter 3 I use gas and melt compositions, equilibrium chemical speciation modelling, and partitioning data, to interrogate the origins of metal/metalloid enrichments in arc emissions. Chapter 4 moves on to ocean island volcanoes, and compares different, but genetically-related, outgassing environments associated with the 2018 eruption of Kīlauea, Hawai‘i: 1) degassing from the source vent, and 2) lava-seawater interactions at the ocean entry. Speciation modelling of magmatic gases highlights the importance of the S²⁻ ligand in highly volatile trace element degassing (e.g., Se, Te). In contrast, the high availability of seawater-derived Cl⁻ at the ocean entry facilitates enhanced degassing of Cl⁻-complexing elements (e.g., Cu). In Chapter 5 I trace the downwind evolution of atmospheric concentrations of metal and metalloid elements during the 2018 eruption. Specifically, I demonstrate that volatile metal pollutants were rapidly depleted from the atmosphere – up to 100 times faster than refractory species. High rainfall over early stages of downwind plume transport leads to early wet deposition of soluble complexes, with implications for hazard assessment. In Chapter 6 I consider metal transport in the atmosphere during explosive volcanism, using ice core records of the massive halogen-rich ~17.7 ka eruptions of Mt. Takahe, an alkaline volcano on the West Antarctic Rift System. I suggest that the residence time of metals in the atmosphere may be limited by their affinity for chloride, with implications for the utility of metals in ice cores as tracers of volcanism. Overall, this thesis demonstrates the importance of volatility, ligand-availability and oxygen fugacity in both the degassing and downwind transport of volcanogenic metals and metalloids.EPSRC studentshi

Remote Sensing of Earth Resources (1970 - 1973 supplement): A literature survey with indexes. Section 2: Indexes

Documents related to the identification and evaluation by means of sensors in spacecraft and aircraft of vegetation, minerals, and other natural resources, and the techniques and potentialities of surveying and keeping up-to-date inventories of such riches are cited. These documents were announced in the NASA scientific and technical information system between March 1970 and December 1973