The Swedish Penal Code of 1965

Colombo City is the commercial capital of Sri Lanka with an estimated resident population of over 750,000 spread over 3741 hectares (ha) and has a population density over 1188 per ha. It is located in the western coast of Sri Lanka and is in wet zone. The topography is of flat terrain with a mix of land and water. Considering the population and the limited undeveloped land available, the disposal of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) and Sewer is a major environmental problem in Colombo. The major object of this thesis is to identify and evaluate a productive waste management system that is not only environmental friendly but also sustainable and cost effective. In this context, as a sustainable technology, applicability of anaerobic digestion is investigated and methane generation potential of the waste is evaluated. In order to identify a sustainable waste management system, the quantity of waste generated within the city of Colombo is identified. The current practices of disposal of these wastes are then reviewed to identify any issues regarding its sustainability. The majority of the MSW is currently disposed as open landfill that is causing pollution of waterways, with its leachate, as well as the polluting the atmosphere around it with its bad odour. The sewer is discharged to sea or disposed via a self-contained soakage pit. Except for few small-scale anaerobic digestion plants that use solid waste for generation of biogas for localized use, there is no large-scale waste to energy projects in operation in Sri Lanka. The sewer is not used productively at all. Having identified the quantity of waste and the disposal methods practiced, the priority is to identify sustainable and productive methods of disposal of wastes that suits best the local conditions. With this in view research hitherto carried out are studied and available literature is reviewed. The objective is to ascertain the processes that productively harness the energy potential of MSW and Sewer, individually or in combination. There are many physical and chemical methods for treatment of wastes. However bioconversion of waste provides the best options for tapping the energy of the wastes. Of the two main bioconversion methods aanaerobic processes exhibit many advantages over aerobic digestion with its ability of handling high organic loading rates and low sludge production. However, the reason for the increase in applications of anaerobic processes, is, its potential for production of energy using the biogas generated. The methane so produced can replace fossil fuel and therefore has a direct positive effect on greenhouse gas reduction. Therefore, compared with other bioconversion technologies for treatment of MSW and sewer/wastewater, the energy and environment benefits make anaerobic digestion an attractive option. Anaerobic treatment of waste in an engineered landfill bioreactor is found to be the best option for treatment of MSW. Whilst providing a decrease in long term environmental risks and low operational and closure costs it provides with valuable energy source in generation of methane. As for sewer generation of methane in anaerobic processes can be enhanced with co-digestion of different types of waste suitably selected. In this regard co-digestion of sewer and wastewater with food waste is found to be productive and is applied in this study. Literature review is carried out to determine suitable models to predict the methane generation potential. The "First Order Decay Model" is identified as the appropriate model for prediction of methane from MSW in landfills. The "Anaerobic Digestion Model No.1" is applied for prediction of methane from sewer and waste water. Chemical composition of MSW is the primary parameter which affects the methane generation. The chemical composition is computed applying the ultimate analysis and using a stoichiometric based approach. For sewer and waste water the basic parameters of BOD and COD concentrations are available from data gathered. Apart from these two parameters the other parameters relevant to local conditions are not available. Therefore values that closely fit the local conditions are taken from the literature. The study determines the methane generation potential of MSW approximately 2.1 x 106 m3 per annum and anaerobic co-digestion of sewer and food substrates generate 9.1 x 106 m3 per annum. If parameters could be determined for the wastes generated locally the accuracy of the methane generation potential could be further enhanced. In this context, further studies, should be directed from the conventional landfills to "Anaerobic Bioreactor Controlled" landfill, where circulation of liquids including leachate is carried out to increase the biogas yield. For sewer the focus should be on the most economical foot print of parallel banks of number of continuous-flow stirred-tank reactors (CSTR) operating in series to accommodate the total flow rate of sewer

Moderate and Non-Arbitrary Sentencing Without Guidelines: The German Experience

Sverige står inför omfattande renoveringsbehov med anledning av det stora antalet hushåll som byggts från 1960-talet och framåt. Läckage blir ett större problem med fler slitna och ålderstigna rör. För att åtgärda rör används främst två metoder: stambyte och relining. Med utgångspunkt i att Sverige står inför relativt stora klimatpolitiska utmaningar, syftar detta projekt till att analysera och kvantifiera hur energianvändning, koldioxidekvivalenta utsläpp och materialåtgång skiljer sig åt mellan metoderna. Rapporten bryter ned metoderna i tre delsystem: materialframställning, transporter och utförandeprocess. Data- och informationsinsamling har skett genom semistrukturerade intervjuer, databaser, publicerade rapporter och webbaserade källor. I rapporten baseras analysen på ett fiktivt badrum som bedöms vara representativt för svenska hushåll. Två modeller presenteras i studien. Den första betraktar relining och stambyte som två isolerade händelser. Ett stambyte medför dock ofta en badrumsrenovering vars behov sällan sammanfaller med behovet av rörbyte. Det medför att svårigheter i renoveringsplaneringen kan uppstå. Modell 2 tar hänsyn till detta förhållande och analyserar hur ett stambyte kan belastas, beroende på hur stor andel av badrummets tekniska livslängd som går förlorad. I studien behandlas de två vanligaste rörmaterialen, gjutjärn och PVC. Resultaten visar att ett stambyte exklusive badrumsrenovering innebär 85 procent högre energianvändning och 192 procent mer koldioxidekvivalenta utsläpp jämfört med relining om gjutjärnsrör byts ut. Motsvarande resultat för PVC-rör är 61 respektive 142 procent. När hänsyn tas till badrumsrenovering blir motsvarande resultat upp till 468 procent mer energianvändning och 683 procent högre koldioxidekvivalenta utsläpp. De två huvudsakliga slutsatserna är att relining innebär mindre miljöpåverkan jämfört med ett stambyte och det är framförallt materialframställningen som orsakar miljöbelastningen för båda metoderna. Det beror på miljöbelastande produktion av reliningmaterial och stor materialåtgång vid ett stambyte.Sweden is facing an extensive need for renovation of drainage systems following the large expansion in real estate during the 1960s. Old and damaged pipes are causing increasing problems with leakages to which there are two main solutions: replacement or relining. In the light of anthropogenic climate change and the emission goals set by the Swedish government, the aim of this study is to analyze and quantify how the two methods compare in terms of energy usage, carbon dioxide equivalent emissions and material usage. The report divides each method into three subsystems: material production, transports and execution. Information and data were gathered through semi-structured interviews as well as obtained from databases, published reports and web-based sources. The analysis was based on a fictive bathroom, which was assumed to be representative for Swedish households. Two models are presented in this study: the first model isolates the replacement of pipes from the rest of the renovation process and compares it with relining. The replacement method is however usually followed by a bathroom renovation, the need of which rarely coincides with the need for pipe replacement. This might cause complications in renovation planning. The second model includes this aspect in the analysis and burdens the replacement method with a certain amount of environmental impact depending on the lost amount of technical life span. The two most common pipe materials, cast iron and PVC, were analyzed in the study. The results show that replacement of pipes excluding bathroom renovation causes 85 percent more energy usage and 192 percent more carbon dioxide equivalent emissions compared to relining when cast iron pipes are installed. Corresponding results with installed PVC pipes are 61 percent and 142 percent. When the bathroom renovation is included in the analysis the numbers increase to up to 468 percent more energy usage and 683 percent higher carbon dioxide equivalent emissions. Two primary conclusions can be drawn from the study: relining has less environmental impact compared to replacement of pipes and it is mainly the production of materials that creates this impact for both methods. It is due to high environmental load in material production for relining and the sheer weight of material with the replacement method

EU SUGGESTED BEST PRACTICE DOCUMENT: CRITICAL ANALYSIS AND POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS FOR EU-WIDE HATE CRIME LAWS

This document subjects the various EU hate crime provisions to critical policy analysis, weighing up their pros and cons, and defending aspects of them from inappropriate forms of critique, and then draws some policy conclusions based on a sense of best practice. The aim of identifying best practice is to generate reform suggestions in the form of detailed model legislation. This is contained in the final section of this document. A key point considered is the narrow definition of protected groups under current EU measures. The restrictions to racist forms of hate crime and genocide denial contained in the Framework Decision is not central to the political and constitutional cultures of all member states. Indeed, it has not prevented the criminal law implementation measures of some EU Member States from including a number of other grounds, such as disability, anti-Semitism, or sexual orientation. Certain EU bodies have even encouraged this expansive approach to national implementation, with the FRA stating: ‘In the spirit of non-discrimination, it is certainly preferable to widen criminal law provisions to include equally all grounds of discrimination covered by Article 14 of the ECHR or Article 21 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union.’ This criticism would, in practice, suggest a need for Members State supplementing these categories with one of more the following: gender, social origin, genetic features, language, political or any other opinion, membership of a national minority, birth, property or other status, disability, age or sexual orientation. Whilst supporting an expansion of the range of groups covered, the following paragraphs issue a cautionary warning against a massive extension to cover all these groups on grounds of both principle and practical consequences

The Influence of the Constitutional Court Decision Against Combating Money Laundering in the Context of Criminal Law Reform

According to Moeljatno, Criminal Law is a part of a country's legal system that prohibits certain acts with the threat of sanction for those who break said laws, determines when and in what cases such punishments should be imposed upon those who commit said acts and determines precisely how punishments should be carried out in the event that a person is accused of such acts. This paper will analyse Constitutional Court Decision No. 77/PUU-XII/2014 and Decision No. 21/PUU-XII/2014 regarding Criminal Law reform. Looking to the theory of procedural criminal law, an indictment of cumulative charges of money laundering requires that the underlying predicate offences be proven. If, for example, the predicate offence is corruption, the corruption must be proven as multiple crimes have been committed by the same suspect, namely corruption leading to money laundering. the Decision of the Pretrial Judge of the Court of South Jakarta, Sarpin Rizaldi, and Constitution Court Decision No. 21/PUU- XII/2014 on the review of Article 77 of Act No. 8 Year 1981 concerning the Law of Criminal Procedure broadened the range of pretrial objects and greatly affected the principles of formal criminal law

Mediating punitiveness: understanding public attitudes towards work-related fatality cases

This paper concerns an empirical investigation into public attitudes towards work-related fatality cases, where organizational offenders cause the death of workers or members of the public. This issue is particularly relevant following the introduction of the Corporate Manslaughter and Corporate Homicide Act 2007 into UK law. Here, as elsewhere, the use of criminal law against companies reflects governmental concerns over public confidence in the law’s ability to regulate risk. The empirical findings demonstrate that high levels of public concern over these cases do not translate into punitive attitudes. Such cases are viewed rationally and constructively, and lead to instrumental rather than purely expressive enforcement preferences

Treatment of International Human Rights Violations in the United States

In our day and age, the violation of human rights has become a matter of international concern. This article is focused on the sharing of those concerns by the United States, in particular as manifested by the treatment of human rights violations in the United States. Following introductory observations in Part I highlighting the special commitment of the United States to the protection of international human rights, the article will show, in Part II thereof, that in virtue of Article 6, Clause [2] of the American Constitution (the Supremacy Clause), human rights conventions are in principle self-executing in the United States.1 However, the United States invariably adds a reservation to its instruments of ratification of such conventions proclaiming that they will not be self-executing in the United States. Incorporating the provisions of human rights conventions ratified by the United States into the country’s municipal legal system therefore requires Congressional implementation legislation, which will be exemplified in Part III with reference to the Torture Convention Implementation Act of 1994. Part IV of the article is devoted to the exercise of universal jurisdiction by federal courts, in virtue of Article 1, Section (8), Clause [10] of the Constitution, to bring to justice those responsible for piracies and felonies on the High Seas and offences against the law of nations.2 In the United States, universal jurisdiction of federal courts is not confined to criminal prosecutions but has also been extended by the Alien Tort Statute to civil actions by foreign victims of a tort that constitutes a violation of the law of nations or of a treaty entered into by the United States.3 The treatment of human rights violations under the Alien Tort Statute and similar legislation is the subject-matter of Part V of this article. Some concluding observations to evaluate the above manifestations of the American commitment to human rights, notably in view of considerations based on the national interests of the United States and a perception of American exceptionalism, will bring the article to a close in Part VI thereof.http://dflsc.law.duke.edu/am201

Treatment of International Human Rights Violations in the United States

INTRODUCTION: Health-related quality of life (HRQoL) in patients treated in intensive care has been reported to be lower compared with age- and sex-adjusted control groups. Our aim was to test whether stratifying for coexisting conditions would reduce observed differences in HRQoL between patients treated in the ICU and a control group from the normal population. We also wanted to characterize the ICU patients with the lowest HRQoL within these strata. METHODS: We did a cross-sectional comparison of scores of the short-form health survey (SF-36) questionnaire in a multicenter study of patients treated in the ICU (n = 780) and those from a local public health survey (n = 6,093). Analyses were in both groups adjusted for age and sex, and data stratified for coexisting conditions. Within each stratum, patients with low scores (below -2 SD of the control group) were identified and characterized. RESULTS: After adjustment, there were minor and insignificant differences in mean SF-36 scores between patients and controls. Eight (n = 18) and 22% (n = 51) of the patients had low scores (-2 SD of the control group) in the physical and mental dimensions of SF-36, respectively. Patients with low scores were usually male, single, on sick leave before admission to critical care, and survived a shorter time after being in ICU. CONCLUSIONS: After adjusting for age, sex, and coexisting conditions, mean HRQoL scores were almost equal in patients and controls. Up to 22% (n = 51) of the patients had, however, a poor quality of life as compared with the controls (-2 SD). This group, which more often consisted of single men, individuals who were on sick leave before admission to the ICU, had an increased mortality after ICU. This group should be a target for future support

From Moral Responsibility to Legal Responsibility in the Conduct of War

Different societies came to consider certain behaviors as morally wrong, and, in time, due to a more or less general practice, those behaviors have also become legally prohibited. While, nowadays, the existence of legal responsibility of states and individuals for certain reprehensible acts committed during an armed conflict, international or non-international, is hard to be disputed, an inquiry into the manner in which the behavior of the belligerents has come to be considered reveals long discussions in the field of morals and theory of morality, and, especially, regarding the different manner of establishing the elements to whom obedience is rather owed (the divinity, the sovereign, the law) and the relations between these. Hence, the present paper aims at analyzing the connections between moral responsibility and legal responsibility for wrongful behaviur during war in a diachronic approach, along with the major shifts in paradigm (codification and individual liability). Understanding morality as practice, convention, custom, we are arguing that the nowadays requirement of liability for war crimes appeared due to an assumed intention and practice of the decision-making entities (the sovereign, the state) and, ultimately, to a decision-making process of the most influential states