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    Robust and Fast 3D Scan Alignment using Mutual Information

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    This paper presents a mutual information (MI) based algorithm for the estimation of full 6-degree-of-freedom (DOF) rigid body transformation between two overlapping point clouds. We first divide the scene into a 3D voxel grid and define simple to compute features for each voxel in the scan. The two scans that need to be aligned are considered as a collection of these features and the MI between these voxelized features is maximized to obtain the correct alignment of scans. We have implemented our method with various simple point cloud features (such as number of points in voxel, variance of z-height in voxel) and compared the performance of the proposed method with existing point-to-point and point-to- distribution registration methods. We show that our approach has an efficient and fast parallel implementation on GPU, and evaluate the robustness and speed of the proposed algorithm on two real-world datasets which have variety of dynamic scenes from different environments

    주행계 및 지도 μž‘μ„±μ„ μœ„ν•œ 3차원 ν™•λ₯ μ  μ •κ·œλΆ„ν¬λ³€ν™˜μ˜ μ •ν•© 방법

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    ν•™μœ„λ…Όλ¬Έ (박사)-- μ„œμšΈλŒ€ν•™κ΅ λŒ€ν•™μ› : κ³΅κ³ΌλŒ€ν•™ 전기·컴퓨터곡학뢀, 2019. 2. 이범희.λ‘œλ΄‡μ€ κ±°λ¦¬μ„Όμ„œλ₯Ό μ΄μš©ν•˜μ—¬ μœ„μΉ˜ν•œ ν™˜κ²½μ˜ 곡간 정보λ₯Ό 점ꡰ(point set) ν˜•νƒœλ‘œ μˆ˜μ§‘ν•  수 μžˆλŠ”λ°, μ΄λ ‡κ²Œ μˆ˜μ§‘ν•œ 정보λ₯Ό ν™˜κ²½μ˜ 볡원에 μ΄μš©ν•  수 μžˆλ‹€. λ˜ν•œ, λ‘œλ΄‡μ€ 점ꡰ과 λͺ¨λΈμ„ μ •ν•©ν•˜λŠ” μœ„μΉ˜λ₯Ό μΆ”μ •ν•  수 μžˆλ‹€. κ±°λ¦¬μ„Όμ„œκ°€ μˆ˜μ§‘ν•œ 점ꡰ이 2μ°¨μ›μ—μ„œ 3μ°¨μ›μœΌλ‘œ ν™•μž₯되고 해상도가 λ†’μ•„μ§€λ©΄μ„œ 점의 κ°œμˆ˜κ°€ 크게 μ¦κ°€ν•˜λ©΄μ„œ, NDT (normal distributions transform)λ₯Ό μ΄μš©ν•œ 정합이 ICP (iterative closest point)의 λŒ€μ•ˆμœΌλ‘œ λΆ€μƒν•˜μ˜€λ‹€. NDTλŠ” 점ꡰ을 λΆ„ν¬λ‘œ λ³€ν™˜ν•˜μ—¬ 곡간을 ν‘œν˜„ν•˜λŠ” μ••μΆ•λœ 곡간 ν‘œν˜„ 방법이닀. λΆ„ν¬μ˜ κ°œμˆ˜κ°€ 점의 κ°œμˆ˜μ— λΉ„ν•΄ μ›”λ“±νžˆ μž‘κΈ° λ•Œλ¬Έμ— ICP에 λΉ„ν•΄ λΉ λ₯Έ μ„±λŠ₯을 κ°€μ‘Œλ‹€. κ·ΈλŸ¬λ‚˜ NDT μ •ν•© 기반 μœ„μΉ˜ μΆ”μ •μ˜ μ„±λŠ₯을 μ’Œμš°ν•˜λŠ” μ…€μ˜ 크기, μ…€μ˜ 쀑첩 정도, μ…€μ˜ λ°©ν–₯, λΆ„ν¬μ˜ μŠ€μΌ€μΌ, λŒ€μ‘μŒμ˜ 비쀑 λ“± νŒŒλΌλ―Έν„°λ₯Ό μ„€μ •ν•˜κΈ°κ°€ 맀우 μ–΄λ ΅λ‹€. λ³Έ ν•™μœ„ λ…Όλ¬Έμ—μ„œλŠ” μ΄λŸ¬ν•œ 어렀움에 λŒ€μ‘ν•˜μ—¬ NDT μ •ν•© 기반 μœ„μΉ˜ μΆ”μ •μ˜ 정확도λ₯Ό ν–₯상할 수 μžˆλŠ” 방법을 μ œμ•ˆν•˜μ˜€λ‹€. λ³Έ 논문은 ν‘œν˜„λ²•κ³Ό 정합법 2개 파트둜 λ‚˜λˆŒ 수 μžˆλ‹€. ν‘œν˜„λ²•μ— μžˆμ–΄ λ³Έ 논문은 λ‹€μŒ 3개 방법을 μ œμ•ˆν•˜μ˜€λ‹€. 첫째, λ³Έ λ…Όλ¬Έμ—μ„œλŠ” λΆ„ν¬μ˜ 퇴화λ₯Ό 막기 μœ„ν•΄ κ²½ν—˜μ μœΌλ‘œ 곡뢄산 ν–‰λ ¬μ˜ κ³ μœ κ°’μ„ μˆ˜μ •ν•˜μ—¬ 곡간적 ν˜•νƒœμ˜ μ™œκ³‘μ„ κ°€μ Έμ˜€λŠ” 문제점과 κ³ ν•΄μƒλ„μ˜ NDTλ₯Ό 생성할 λ•Œ μ…€λ‹Ή 점의 κ°œμˆ˜κ°€ κ°μ†Œν•˜λ©° ꡬ쑰λ₯Ό λ°˜μ˜ν•˜λŠ” 뢄포가 ν˜•μ„±λ˜μ§€ μ•ŠλŠ” λ¬Έμ œμ μ„ μ£Όλͺ©ν–ˆλ‹€. 이λ₯Ό ν•΄κ²°ν•˜κΈ° μœ„ν•˜μ—¬ 각 점에 λŒ€ν•΄ λΆˆν™•μ‹€μ„±μ„ λΆ€μ—¬ν•˜κ³ , 평균과 λΆ„μ‚°μ˜ κΈ°λŒ€κ°’μœΌλ‘œ μˆ˜μ •ν•œ ν™•λ₯ μ  NDT (PNDT, probabilistic NDT) ν‘œν˜„λ²•μ„ μ œμ•ˆν•˜μ˜€λ‹€. 곡간 μ •λ³΄μ˜ λˆ„λ½ 없이 λͺ¨λ“  점을 λΆ„ν¬λ‘œ λ³€ν™˜ν•œ NDTλ₯Ό 톡해 ν–₯μƒλœ 정확도λ₯Ό 보인 PNDTλŠ” μƒ˜ν”Œλ§μ„ ν†΅ν•œ 가을을 κ°€λŠ₯ν•˜λ„λ‘ ν•˜μ˜€λ‹€. λ‘˜μ§Έ, λ³Έ λ…Όλ¬Έμ—μ„œλŠ” μ •μœ‘λ©΄μ²΄λ₯Ό μ…€λ‘œ 닀루며, 셀을 μ€‘μ‹¬μ’Œν‘œμ™€ λ³€μ˜ 길이둜 μ •μ˜ν•œλ‹€. λ˜ν•œ, μ…€λ“€λ‘œ 이뀄진 격자λ₯Ό 각 μ…€μ˜ 쀑심점 μ‚¬μ΄μ˜ 간격과 μ…€μ˜ 크기둜 μ •μ˜ν•œλ‹€. μ΄λŸ¬ν•œ μ •μ˜λ₯Ό ν† λŒ€λ‘œ, λ³Έ λ…Όλ¬Έμ—μ„œλŠ” μ…€μ˜ ν™•λŒ€λ₯Ό ν†΅ν•˜μ—¬ 셀을 μ€‘μ²©μ‹œν‚€λŠ” 방법과 μ…€μ˜ 간격 μ‘°μ ˆμ„ ν†΅ν•˜μ—¬ 셀을 μ€‘μ²©μ‹œν‚€λŠ” 방법을 μ œμ•ˆν•˜μ˜€λ‹€. λ³Έ 논문은 κΈ°μ‘΄ 2D NDTμ—μ„œ μ‚¬μš©ν•œ μ…€μ˜ μ‚½μž…λ²•μ„ μ£Όλͺ©ν•˜μ˜€λ‹€. λ‹¨μˆœμž…λ°©κ΅¬μ‘°λ₯Ό μ΄λ£¨λŠ” κΈ°μ‘΄ 방법 외에 λ©΄μ‹¬μž…λ°©κ΅¬μ‘°μ™€ μ²΄μ‹¬μž…λ°©κ΅¬μ‘°μ˜ μ…€λ‘œ 이뀄진 κ²©μžκ°€ μƒμ„±ν•˜μ˜€λ‹€. κ·Έ λ‹€μŒ ν•΄λ‹Ή 격자λ₯Ό μ΄μš©ν•˜μ—¬ NDTλ₯Ό μƒμ„±ν•˜λŠ” 방법을 μ œμ•ˆν•˜μ˜€λ‹€. λ˜ν•œ, μ΄λ ‡κ²Œ μƒμ„±λœ NDTλ₯Ό μ •ν•©ν•  λ•Œ λ§Žμ€ μ‹œκ°„μ„ μ†Œμš”ν•˜κΈ° λ•Œλ¬Έμ— λŒ€μ‘μŒ 검색 μ˜μ—­μ„ μ •μ˜ν•˜μ—¬ μ •ν•© 속도λ₯Ό ν–₯μƒν•˜μ˜€λ‹€. μ…‹μ§Έ, 저사양 λ‘œλ΄‡λ“€μ€ 점ꡰ 지도λ₯Ό NDT μ§€λ„λ‘œ μ••μΆ•ν•˜μ—¬ λ³΄κ΄€ν•˜λŠ” 것이 νš¨μœ¨μ μ΄λ‹€. κ·ΈλŸ¬λ‚˜ λ‘œλ΄‡ ν¬μ¦ˆκ°€ κ°±μ‹ λ˜κ±°λ‚˜, λ‹€κ°œμ²΄ λ‘œλ΄‡κ°„ λž‘λ°λ·°κ°€ μΌμ–΄λ‚˜ 지도λ₯Ό 곡유 및 κ²°ν•©ν•˜λŠ” 경우 NDT의 뢄포 ν˜•νƒœκ°€ μ™œκ³‘λ˜λŠ” λ¬Έμ œκ°€ λ°œμƒν•œλ‹€. μ΄λŸ¬ν•œ 문제λ₯Ό ν•΄κ²°ν•˜κΈ° μœ„ν•˜μ—¬ NDT μž¬μƒμ„± 방법을 μ œμ•ˆν•˜μ˜€λ‹€. 정합법에 μžˆμ–΄ λ³Έ 논문은 λ‹€μŒ 4개 방법을 μ œμ•ˆν•˜μ˜€λ‹€. 첫째, 점ꡰ의 각 점에 λŒ€ν•΄ λŒ€μ‘λ˜λŠ” 색상 정보가 제곡될 λ•Œ 색상 hueλ₯Ό μ΄μš©ν•œ ν–₯μƒλœ NDT μ •ν•©μœΌλ‘œ 각 λŒ€μ‘μŒμ— λŒ€ν•΄ hue의 μœ μ‚¬λ„λ₯Ό λΉ„μ€‘μœΌλ‘œ μ‚¬μš©ν•˜λŠ” λͺ©μ ν•¨μˆ˜λ₯Ό μ œμ•ˆν•˜μ˜€λ‹€. λ‘˜μ§Έ, λ³Έ 논문은은 λ‹€μ–‘ν•œ 크기의 μœ„μΉ˜ λ³€ν™”λŸ‰μ— λŒ€μ‘ν•˜κΈ° μœ„ν•œ 닀쀑 λ ˆμ΄μ–΄ NDT μ •ν•© (ML-NDT, multi-layered NDT)의 ν•œκ³„λ₯Ό κ·Ήλ³΅ν•˜κΈ° μœ„ν•˜μ—¬ ν‚€λ ˆμ΄μ–΄ NDT μ •ν•© (KL-NDT, key-layered NDT)을 μ œμ•ˆν•˜μ˜€λ‹€. KL-NDTλŠ” 각 ν•΄μƒλ„μ˜ μ…€μ—μ„œ ν™œμ„±ν™”λœ 점의 개수 λ³€ν™”λŸ‰μ„ μ²™λ„λ‘œ ν‚€λ ˆμ΄μ–΄λ₯Ό κ²°μ •ν•œλ‹€. λ˜ν•œ ν‚€λ ˆμ΄μ–΄μ—μ„œ μœ„μΉ˜μ˜ 좔정값이 μˆ˜λ ΄ν•  λ•ŒκΉŒμ§€ 정합을 μˆ˜ν–‰ν•˜λŠ” 방식을 μ·¨ν•˜μ—¬ λ‹€μŒ ν‚€λ ˆμ΄μ–΄μ— 더 쒋은 μ΄ˆκΈ°κ°’μ„ μ œκ³΅ν•œλ‹€. μ…‹μ§Έ, λ³Έ 논문은 이산적인 μ…€λ‘œ 인해 NDTκ°„ μ •ν•© 기법인 NDT-D2D (distribution-to-distribution NDT)의 λͺ©μ  ν•¨μˆ˜κ°€ λΉ„μ„ ν˜•μ΄λ©° κ΅­μ†Œ μ΅œμ €μΉ˜μ˜ μ™„ν™”λ₯Ό μœ„ν•œ λ°©λ²•μœΌλ‘œ μ‹ κ·œ NDT와 λͺ¨λΈ NDT에 λ…λ¦½λœ μŠ€μΌ€μΌμ„ μ •μ˜ν•˜κ³  μŠ€μΌ€μΌμ„ λ³€ν™”ν•˜λ©° μ •ν•©ν•˜λŠ” 동적 μŠ€μΌ€μΌ 기반 NDT μ •ν•© (DSF-NDT-D2D, dynamic scaling factor-based NDT-D2D)을 μ œμ•ˆν•˜μ˜€λ‹€. λ§ˆμ§€λ§‰μœΌλ‘œ, λ³Έ 논문은 μ†ŒμŠ€ NDT와 지도간 μ¦λŒ€μ  정합을 μ΄μš©ν•œ 주행계 μΆ”μ • 및 지도 μž‘μ„± 방법을 μ œμ•ˆν•˜μ˜€λ‹€. 이 방법은 λ‘œλ΄‡μ˜ ν˜„μž¬ ν¬μ¦ˆμ— λŒ€ν•œ μ΄ˆκΈ°κ°’μ„ μ†ŒμŠ€ 점ꡰ에 μ μš©ν•œ λ’€ NDT둜 λ³€ν™˜ν•˜μ—¬ 지도 상 NDT와 κ°€λŠ₯ν•œ ν•œ μœ μ‚¬ν•œ NDTλ₯Ό μž‘μ„±ν•œλ‹€. κ·Έ λ‹€μŒ λ‘œλ΄‡ 포즈 및 μ†ŒμŠ€ NDT의 GC (Gaussian component)λ₯Ό κ³ λ €ν•˜μ—¬ 뢀뢄지도λ₯Ό μΆ”μΆœν•œλ‹€. μ΄λ ‡κ²Œ μΆ”μΆœν•œ 뢀뢄지도와 μ†ŒμŠ€ NDTλŠ” 닀쀑 λ ˆμ΄μ–΄ NDT 정합을 μˆ˜ν–‰ν•˜μ—¬ μ •ν™•ν•œ 주행계λ₯Ό μΆ”μ •ν•˜κ³ , μΆ”μ • 포즈둜 μ†ŒμŠ€ 점ꡰ을 νšŒμ „ 및 이동 ν›„ κΈ°μ‘΄ 지도λ₯Ό κ°±μ‹ ν•œλ‹€. μ΄λŸ¬ν•œ 과정을 톡해 이 방법은 ν˜„μž¬ 졜고 μ„±λŠ₯을 가진 LOAM (lidar odometry and mapping)에 λΉ„ν•˜μ—¬ 더 높은 정확도와 더 λΉ λ₯Έ μ²˜λ¦¬μ†λ„λ₯Ό λ³΄μ˜€λ‹€.The robot is a self-operating device using its intelligence, and autonomous navigation is a critical form of intelligence for a robot. This dissertation focuses on localization and mapping using a 3D range sensor for autonomous navigation. The robot can collect spatial information from the environment using a range sensor. This information can be used to reconstruct the environment. Additionally, the robot can estimate pose variations by registering the source point set with the model. Given that the point set collected by the sensor is expanded in three dimensions and becomes dense, registration using the normal distribution transform (NDT) has emerged as an alternative to the most commonly used iterative closest point (ICP) method. NDT is a compact representation which describes using a set of GCs (GC) converted from a point set. Because the number of GCs is much smaller than the number of points, with regard to the computation time, NDT outperforms ICP. However, the NDT has issues to be resolved, such as the discretization of the point set and the objective function. This dissertation is divided into two parts: representation and registration. For the representation part, first we present the probabilistic NDT (PNDT) to deal with the destruction and degeneration problems caused by the small cell size and the sparse point set. PNDT assigns an uncertainty to each point sample to convert a point set with fewer than four points into a distribution. As a result, PNDT allows for more precise registration using small cells. Second, we present lattice adjustment and cell insertion methods to overlap cells to overcome the discreteness problem of the NDT. In the lattice adjustment method, a lattice is expressed as the distance between the cells and the side length of each cell. In the cell insertion method, simple, face-centered-cubic, and body-centered-cubic lattices are compared. Third, we present a means of regenerating the NDT for the target lattice. A single robot updates its poses using simultaneous localization and mapping (SLAM) and fuses the NDT at each pose to update its NDT map. Moreover, multiple robots share NDT maps built with inconsistent lattices and fuse the maps. Because the simple fusion of the NDT maps can change the centers, shapes, and normal vectors of GCs, the regeneration method subdivides the NDT into truncated GCs using the target lattice and regenerates the NDT. For the registration part, first we present a hue-assisted NDT registration if the robot acquires color information corresponding to each point sample from a vision sensor. Each GC of the NDT has a distribution of the hue and uses the similarity of the hue distributions as the weight in the objective function. Second, we present a key-layered NDT registration (KL-NDT) method. The multi-layered NDT registration (ML-NDT) registers points to the NDT in multiple resolutions of lattices. However, the initial cell size and the number of layers are difficult to determine. KL-NDT determines the key layers in which the registration is performed based on the change of the number of activated points. Third, we present a method involving dynamic scaling factors of the covariance. This method scales the source NDT at zero initially to avoid a negative correlation between the likelihood and rotational alignment. It also scales the target NDT from the maximum scale to the minimum scale. Finally, we present a method of incremental registration of PNDTs which outperforms the state-of-the-art lidar odometry and mapping method.1 Introduction 1 1.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.2 Problem Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 1.3 Literature Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 1.3.1 Point Set Registration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 1.3.2 Incremental Registration for Odometry Estimation . . . . . . 16 1.4 Contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 1.5 Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 2 Preliminaries 21 2.1 NDT Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 2.2 NDT Registration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 2.3 NDT Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 2.4 Transformation Matrix and The Parameter Vector . . . . . . . . . . . 27 2.5 Cubic Cell and Lattice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 2.6 Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 2.7 Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 2.8 Evaluation of Registration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 2.9 Benchmark Dataset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 3 Probabilistic NDT Representation 34 3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 3.2 Uncertainty of Point Based on Sensor Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 3.3 Probabilistic NDT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 3.4 Generalization of NDT Registration Based on PNDT . . . . . . . . . 40 3.5 Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 3.5.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 3.5.2 Evaluation of Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 3.5.3 Evaluation of Registration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 3.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 4 Interpolation for NDT Using Overlapped Regular Cells 51 4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 4.2 Lattice Adjustment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 4.3 Crystalline NDT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 4.4 Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 4.4.1 Lattice Adjustment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 4.4.2 Performance of Crystalline NDT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 4.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 5 Regeneration of Normal Distributions Transform 65 5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 5.2 Mathematical Preliminaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 5.2.1 Trivariate Normal Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 5.2.2 Truncated Trivariate Normal Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . 67 5.3 Regeneration of NDT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 5.3.1 Alignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 5.3.2 Subdivision of Gaussian Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 5.3.3 Fusion of Gaussian Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 5.4 Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 5.4.1 Evaluation Metrics for Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 5.4.2 Representation Performance of the Regenerated NDT . . . . . 75 5.4.3 Computation Performance of the Regeneration . . . . . . . . 82 5.4.4 Application of Map Fusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 5.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 6 Hue-Assisted Registration 91 6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 6.2 Preliminary of the HSV Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 6.3 Colored Octree for Subdivision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 6.4 HA-NDT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 6.5 Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 6.5.1 Evaluation of HA-NDT against nhue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 6.5.2 Evaluation of NDT and HA-NDT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 6.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 7 Key-Layered NDT Registration 103 7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 7.2 Key-layered NDT-P2D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 7.3 Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 7.3.1 Evaluation of KL-NDT-P2D and ML-NDT-P2D . . . . . . . . 108 7.3.2 Evaluation of KL-NDT-D2D and ML-NDT-D2D . . . . . . . 111 7.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 8 Scaled NDT and The Multi-scale Registration 113 8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 8.2 Scaled NDT representation and L2 distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 8.3 NDT-D2D with dynamic scaling factors of covariances . . . . . . . . 116 8.4 Range of scaling factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 8.5 Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 8.5.1 Evaluation of the presented method without initial guess . . . 122 8.5.2 Application of odometry estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 8.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 9 Scan-to-map Registration 129 9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 9.2 Multi-layered PNDT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 9.3 NDT Incremental Registration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 9.3.1 Initialization of PNDT-Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 9.3.2 Generation of Source ML-PNDT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 9.3.3 Reconstruction of The Target ML-PNDT . . . . . . . . . . . 134 9.3.4 Pose Estimation Based on Multi-layered Registration . . . . . 135 9.3.5 Update of PNDT-Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 9.4 Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 9.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 10 Conclusions 142 Bibliography 145 초둝 159 κ°μ‚¬μ˜ κΈ€ 162Docto
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