Shifts in female genital mutilation/cutting in Kenya: Perspectives of families and health care providers

Despite compelling reasons and efforts to eradicate female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C) in Kenya, the practice has persisted, albeit with some changes. This study sought to understand the shifts in FGM/C among families and healthcare providers from selected Kenyan communities that practice FGM/C. Our findings highlight similarities and differences across three distinct Kenyan communities. FGM/C appears to persist through two models: first, shifts (changes) in the practice, notably cutting at a younger age, lesser cutting; and second, through stability and consistency with minimal change. The two diverse models appear to rely on and sustain social norms that support FGM/C in these communities. The study findings highlight several possible avenues for leveraging positive change, outlined in this report, which also includes future research needs

Leadership, Leaderlessness and Leaderless Groups: The case of the Occupy London Movement

This thesis investigates how ‘leaderless’ social movements are coordinated and sustained by their members. Drawing on an empirical study of the London Occupy protests, it emphasises the socially-constructed nature of ‘leaderlessness’, arguing that the London Occupy movement can be understood as an ensemble of symbolic meanings, practical accomplishments and communicative political actions that allowed activists to mobilise and develop a broad-ranging repertoire of protest. The thesis examines how divergent but interrelated modalities, including occupation of physical and virtual space, appropriation of both ‘new’ and ‘old’ media and dramaturgical use of physical artefacts (most notably the Guy Fawkes mask), were deployed in ways that instantiated a series of highly-charged political ‘spectacles’, challenging the dominance of the capitalist economic order. This thesis also considers whether the Occupy movement represents a new template for twenty-first-century political activism. Whilst the movement can be seen as distinctively new, in the sense that it operates ‘virtually’ and without a fixed political programme or formal structure, similar political actions can be traced back to the protest movements of the 1960s and to eighteenth- and nineteenth-century struggles

Human Factors in Secure Software Development

While security research has made significant progress in the development of theoretically secure methods, software and algorithms, software still comes with many possible exploits, many of those using the human factor. The human factor is often called ``the weakest link'' in software security. To solve this, human factors research in security and privacy focus on the users of technology and consider their security needs. The research then asks how technology can serve users while minimizing risks and empowering them to retain control over their own data. However, these concepts have to be implemented by developers whose security errors may proliferate to all of their software's users. For example, software that stores data in an insecure way, does not secure network traffic correctly, or otherwise fails to adhere to secure programming best practices puts all of the software's users at risk. It is therefore critical that software developers implement security correctly. However, in addition to security rarely being a primary concern while producing software, developers may also not have extensive awareness, knowledge, training or experience in secure development. A lack of focus on usability in libraries, documentation, and tools that they have to use for security-critical components may exacerbate the problem by blowing up the investment of time and effort needed to "get security right". This dissertation's focus is how to support developers throughout the process of implementing software securely. This research aims to understand developers' use of resources, their mindsets as they develop, and how their background impacts code security outcomes. Qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods were employed online and in the laboratory, and large scale datasets were analyzed to conduct this research. This research found that the information sources developers use can contribute to code (in)security: copying and pasting code from online forums leads to achieving functional code quickly compared to using official documentation resources, but may introduce vulnerable code. We also compared the usability of cryptographic APIs, finding that poor usability, unsafe (possibly obsolete) defaults and unhelpful documentation also lead to insecure code. On the flip side, well-thought out documentation and abstraction levels can help improve an API's usability and may contribute to secure API usage. We found that developer experience can contribute to better security outcomes, and that studying students in lieu of professional developers can produce meaningful insights into developers' experiences with secure programming. We found that there is a multitude of online secure development advice, but that these advice sources are incomplete and may be insufficient for developers to retrieve help, which may cause them to choose un-vetted and potentially insecure resources. This dissertation supports that (a) secure development is subject to human factor challenges and (b) security can be improved by addressing these challenges and supporting developers. The work presented in this dissertation has been seminal in establishing human factors in secure development research within the security and privacy community and has advanced the dialogue about the rigorous use of empirical methods in security and privacy research. In these research projects, we repeatedly found that usability issues of security and privacy mechanisms, development practices, and operation routines are what leads to the majority of security and privacy failures that affect millions of end users

Internal Controls Possessed by Small Business Owners

On average, a small business could lose $150,000 a year due to employee fraud schemes. For most of the small businesses affected by employee fraud schemes, the average$150,000 loss could be detrimental to the small business, causing the business to close. The purpose of this multiple case study was to explore the internal controls small business owners apply to detect and prevent fraud from occurring in the business. The population for the study consisted of 3 small business owners located in Hartsville, South Carolina who implemented effective internal fraud controls in their business. The conceptual framework guiding the study was the fraud triangle theory. Data were collected and triangulated through semistructured interviews, company internal control policy and procedure documents, the Committee of Sponsoring Organizations of the Treadway Commission internal control framework, and the Small Business Administration internal control good practices. Data were analyzed through coding. There were 3 themes which emerged in relation to addressing the central research question: cash collection, separation of duties, and attentiveness and awareness. The findings could contribute to positive social change by providing best practices for small business owners to mitigate the components of the fraud triangle and subsequently decrease, if not eliminate, fraud from occurring in small businesses

Nuorten miesten toimijuus tyttöjen sukuelinten silpomis/ympärileikkausperinteen ehkäisyssä Somalimaassa

In Somaliland, the prevalence rate for female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C) renders it nearly universal. An overwhelming majority of girls undergo the most radical type of FGM/C, locally referred to as pharaonic cutting. Yet, there is some evidence on a shift towards less radical types, locally labelled sunnah cutting. Amongst international institutions, researchers and activists engaged in preventing FGM/C, the practice is increasingly conceptualised as a human rights violation and as a form of gender discrimination. It is now argued that challenging stereotypes about gender power structures will pave the way for abandoning the practice. Simultaneously, researchers and activists urge men to voice their opinions about the practice. This research provides a deeper understanding of the engagement of young men in the prevention of FGM/C, but it also critically examines men’s engagement. Focusing on discursive practices, I examine how young men engaged in preventing FGM/C in Somaliland discursively negotiate violence against women, gender norms, and the gender order. I also explore whether these negotiations are on the one hand, consistent with those goals related to deconstructing the patriarchal gender regime and, on the other hand, consistent with locally prevailing masculinities. My study is guided by critical studies on men and masculinities and by a critical discourse analysis, through which I address the complex and often hidden workings of power and ideology in discourse. To do so, I collected data via semi-structured individual interviews with 19 university students (15 men, 4 women) who volunteered in a project to advocate against FGM/C in Somaliland. The interviewees employed four interlinked discourses: the righteousness discourse, the health discourse, the hierarchical difference discourse, and the masculine responsibility discourse. These discourses challenge some forms of violence against women, while legitimating others. They (re)produce prevailing masculinities and hierarchical gender order in many ways, but there are also discursive elements that renegotiate prevailing gender norms, particularly idealised womanhood. The findings of this study contribute to theories associated with female genital cutting as patriarchal violence, feminist theories on the workings of power and ideology within a discourse, and theories on men and masculinities. More practically, these findings can inform the design of programmes to prevent FGM/C, which should remain consistent with the deconstruction of patriarchal structures and practices that uphold FGM/C.Somaliassa useimmat tytöt läpikäyvät sukuelinten silpomisen/ympärileikkauksen (female genital mutilation/cutting, FGM/C). Suurin osa läpikäy radikaaleimman faraonisen leikkauksen, mutta nähtävissä on merkkejä siirtymisestä lievempään sunnah-leikkaukseen etenkin kaupungeissa. Kansainvälisten järjestöjen, tutkijoiden ja aktivistien keskuudessa FGM/C-perinnettä käsitellään nykyään ennen kaikkea ihmisoikeuskysymyksenä ja sukupuoleen perustuvana syrjintänä. Siksi sukupuolten valtasuhteiden haastaminen korostuu monissa perinteen lopettamiseen tähtäävissä hankkeissa. Samalla miesten roolia perinteen lopettamisessa peräänkuulutetaan aiempaa vahvemmin. Tutkimukseni pyrkii ymmärtämään mutta samalla myös tarkastelemaan kriittisesti miesten toimijuutta FGM/C-vastaisessa toiminnassa. Analysoin tutkimuksessani, kuinka FGM/C-perinteen vastaiseen työhön Somalimaassa osallistuvat nuoret miehet haastavat ja toisaalta uusintavat naisiin kohdistuvaa väkivaltaa, sukupuolinormeja ja sukupuolijärjestystä diskurssien kautta. Tutkimukseni tarkastelee myös sitä, miten nämä diskursiiviset neuvottelut vahvistavat ja purkavat patriarkaalista sukupuolijärjestelmää sekä miten ne asemoituvat suhteessa paikallisiin maskuliinisuuksiin. Analysoin tutkimusaineistoani kriittisen mies- ja maskuliinisuustutkimuksen sekä kriittisen diskurssianalyysin kautta. Kiinnitän huomiota erityisesti siihen, miten sukupuolta ja sukupuolijärjestystä rakennetaan puheessa esimerkiksi esittämällä toimijoita sukupuolittuneissa rooleissa, kuvaamalla vallitsevia järjestyksiä "luonnollisina" ja oikeudenmukaisina, sekä vetoamalla vallitseviin ideologioihin. Tutkimusaineistoni koostuu 19 yliopisto-opiskelijan (15 miestä, 4 naista) haastattelusta. Haastateltavat toimivat vapaaehtoisina paikallisen kansalaisjärjestön FGM/C-perinnettä ehkäisevässä hankkeessa. Haastateltavien käyttämissä diskursseissa faraoninen leikkaus näyttäytyy naisten terveyttä uhkaavana ja islaminuskon vastaisena kulttuurisena tapana, kun taas sunnah-leikkaus nähdään usein uskonnollisesti hyväksyttävänä, lähes harmittomana toimenpiteenä. Diskursseissa myös haastetaan FGM/C osoituksena naisen uskonnollista "puhtaudesta"’. Miesten valta-asemaa sekä vallitsevia maskuliinisuuksia sen sijaan vahvistetaan diskursseissa monella tavalla. Tutkimustulokseni lisäävät ymmärrystä FGM/C-perinteestä sekä sukupuolten valtasuhteiden uusintamisesta diskurssien kautta. Tulokseni vahvistavat käsitystä, että perinteen lopettamiseen tähtäävissä ohjelmissa tulisi kiinnittää huomiota patriarkaalisiin rakenteisiin, jotka osaltaan ylläpitävät FGM/C-perinnettä

Social justice is the best therapy:exploring lived-experiences of welfare reform in the United Kingdom

This thesis consists of a literature review, a research paper and a critical appraisal. The focus of this thesis is to understand the impact of welfare reform and austerity on individuals, with particular focus on mental wellbeing. In attempt to explore the impact of stigma on individuals who claim benefits a qualitative metasynthesis of 18 papers was completed. Findings demonstrated that individuals experienced multiple levels of benefit stigma, that stigma had social and emotional impact, individuals adopted various strategies to manage their stigmatised identity and that benefits stigma created an atmosphere of distrust and suspicion within communities. The research paper specifically explored the impact of applying for Personal Independence Payment (PIP) on mental wellbeing. PIP is a form of disability benefit introduced under the Welfare Reform Act. Thematic analysis of qualitative data yielded from 16 interviews led to the development of six related themes: 1) PIP is ‘gruelling’ throughout: designed to frustrate?; 2) ‘Treated like a criminal’ - a dehumanising, criminalising process; 3) ‘It’s life threatening for some people’ - impact of PIP on mental health; 4) ‘It feels like they’re trying to cull the weak’- lacking a sense of belonging and worth in society; 5) ‘They need to make improvements’ –how PIP could be improved. These findings captured the distressing nature of the PIP process. Finally, the critical appraisal provides a reflective stance on a central issue underlying many of the recommendations made within the literature review and empirical paper- the role of Clinical Psychology in politics and social justice. It is argued that psychological thinking can offer unique insight into some of the most pressing issues society faces. Therefore we have a responsibility to contribute our research findings and our theoretical understandings to public, social and political debates

Working the Spaces of Power

This book is available as open access through the Bloomsbury Open Access programme and is available on www.bloomsburycollections.com. This book highlights the way in which contemporary forms of governance, policy and politics have been reframed by women 'working the spaces of power'. It shows how they took activist commitments into their working lives, in the process negotiating the terrain of neoliberal governance. Their work generated new political movements, community initiatives, public policies, organizational logics and forms of 'knowledge work'. Newman draws on over 50 interviews with women from four generations to interrogate, develop and challenge existing approaches to understanding social and political change. In a postscript she traces ways in which the analysis might 'speak to the present' and offer resources for contemporary politics and practice