Emotional engagements predict and enhance social cognition in young chimpanzees

Social cognition in infancy is evident in coordinated triadic engagements, that is, infants attending jointly with social partners and objects. Current evolutionary theories of primate social cognition tend to highlight species differences in cognition based on human-unique cooperative motives. We consider a developmental model in which engagement experiences produce differential outcomes. We conducted a 10-year-long study in which two groups of laboratory-raised chimpanzee infants were given quantifiably different engagement experiences. Joint attention, cooperativeness, affect, and different levels of cognition were measured in 5- to 12-month-old chimpanzees, and compared to outcomes derived from a normative human database. We found that joint attention skills significantly improved across development for all infants, but by 12 months, the humans significantly surpassed the chimpanzees. We found that cooperativeness was stable in the humans, but by 12 months, the chimpanzee group given enriched engagement experiences significantly surpassed the humans. Past engagement experiences and concurrent affect were significant unique predictors of both joint attention and cooperativeness in 5- to 12-month-old chimpanzees. When engagement experiences and concurrent affect were statistically controlled, joint attention and cooperation were not associated. We explain differential social cognition outcomes in terms of the significant influences of previous engagement experiences and affect, in addition to cognition. Our study highlights developmental processes that underpin the emergence of social cognition in support of evolutionary continuity

Knowledge convergence in computer-supported collaborative learning

This study investigates how two types of graphical representation tools influence the way in which learners use knowledge resources in two different collaboration conditions. In addition, the study explores the extent to which learners share knowledge with respect to individual outcomes under these different conditions. The study also analyzes the relationship between the use of knowledge resources and different types of knowledge. The type of external representation (content-specific vs. content-independent) and the collaboration condition (videoconferencing vs. face-to-face) were varied. Sixty-four (64) university students participated in the study. Results showed that learning partners converged strongly with respect to their use of resources during the collaboration process. Convergence with respect to outcomes was rather low, but relatively higher for application-oriented knowledge than for factual knowledge. With content-specific external representation, learners used more appropriate knowledge resources without sharing more knowledge after collaboration. Learners in the computer-mediated collaboration used a wider range of resources. Moreover, in exploratory qualitative and quantitative analyses, the study found evidence for a relation between aspects of the collaborative process and knowledge convergence

Modeling intra- and inter-team spatial interaction patterns in invasive team sports

Doutoramento em Motricidade Humana na especialidade de Treino DesportivoTeam sports games are recognized as dynamic systems of interaction, where individual and collective patterns of behavior emerge from a confluence of multiple organismic, environmental and task-related constraints on the players. Researchers have been interested in studying the dynamic interaction of these many degrees of freedom for at least two decades considering various methods, approaches and techniques. In this thesis we aimed to provide a fruitful contribution in this area of research presenting innovative methods of analysis that overcome some identified methodological limitations in measures that are often considered to (1) assess the complexity of behavioral dynamic systems (ApEn) and (2) to describe the spatial interaction behavior of a team. Regarding the first issue, we have defined normalized measures of the original ApEn to measure, and compare, the regularity of signals generated from any behavioral system. These were tested and validated using two well-known data series of regular (sine) and irregular (random) behavior. As for the second issue, we developed two new models, Voronoi diagram (VD) and Superimposed Voronoi Diagram (SVD), from which strong candidates to collective variables were derived: from the VD model we defined the size of the dominant region (DR) and, from the SVD model, the percentage of free area (%FA) and the maximum percentage of overlapped area (Max%OA). Given that %FA that is largely dependent on the distance between each pair of exclusive opponents, we have conjectured SVD patterns for two specific rules of dyadic interaction: (1) exclusive pairing and (2) random interaction. While the former rule was thought to be associated with a specific defensive method, the man-to-man defense, the second rule is associated with a reference spatial pattern used for analysis purposes. Patterns simulated under each of these two rules, and according to the settings in the observed tasks (5 vs 4+GK in a limited play area of 20m2), were considered to generate reference values of %FA. As for the Max%OA, data from simulated SVD patters have shown that this variable is inversely associated with the number of opponent neighbors, i.e., the more the opponents the smaller the Max%OA. Results from formal applications of the described methods have suggested the following: (1) having considered data signals from the collective variable that describes the dyadic sub-system in rugby union, we found that the physical contact between the players (tackle) increases the complexity of the emergent behavior, making this more predictable in try situations; (2) in Futsal (5 vs 4+GK in a limited play area of 20m2), the size of the DR was measured to assess how teams manage space – the attacking team has presented greater DR than the defending team throughout the task, also, the attackers presented a more regular spatial behavior, which means spatial behavior of the team defending is more unpredictable; (3) the %FA has captured the presence of low levels of exclusive dyadic interaction when the defense team has numerical disadvantage; (4) the Max%OA was able to identify the attacker under more pressure.RESUMO: Jogos desportivos coletivos podem ser considerados como sistemas dinâmicos de interação, onde padrões de comportamento individual e coletivo emergem de uma confluência de vários constrangimentos (indivíduo, ambiente e tarefa) na ação dos jogadores. Há pelo menos 20 anos, os investigadores têm-se interessado pelo estudo da interação dinâmica desta multiplicidade de graus de liberdade, considerando para tal vários métodos de análise, abordagens e técnicas. Pretende-se que o trabalho apresentado nesta tese constitua uma contribuição frutífera para esta área de investigação, sendo aqui apresentados métodos inovadores de análise que pretendem superar algumas limitações metodológicas identificadas nas medidas que são muitas vezes consideradas (1) para avaliar a complexidade de sistemas dinâmicos (ApEn) e (2) para descrever o comportamento de interação espacial entre equipas. Quanto à primeira questão, foram aqui propostas medidas normalizadas de entropia aproximada (ApEn) para medir e comparar a regularidade de sinais gerados por qualquer sistema comportamental. Estas medidas foram testadas e validadas considerando séries de referência para comportamento regular (função seno) e irregular (função geradora de números aleatório). Quanto à segunda questão, foram considerados dois novos modelos de análise, os diagramas de Voronoi (DV) e os Diagramas de Voronoi Sobrepostos (DVS), dos quais foram derivadas medidas candidatas a variáveis coletivas: a partir do modelo DV definimos a área da região dominante (RD) e, a partir do modelo DVS, a percentagem de área livre (AL%) e máxima percentagem de área sobreposta (Max%AS). Dado que a AL% dependente da distância interpessoal de díades exclusivas, conjeturamos padrões DVS de acordo com duas regras de interação diádica: (1) emparelhamento exclusivo e (2) interação aleatória. A primeira regra está teoricamente associada ao método de defesa homem-a-homem e a segunda regra está associado a um padrão de referência espacial utilizado para análise. Foram simulados padrões de distribuição espacial sob estas duas regras, e de acordo com as características da tarefa em estudo (5 vs 4 + GR numa área de 20×20m2), para gerar valores de referência da AL% para as duas situações. Quanto à Max%AS, os dados simulados evidenciaram uma relação inversa com o número de adversário vizinhos, ou seja, quanto maior o número de vizinhos adversários, menor a Max% AS. Os resultados de aplicações formais dos métodos descritos sugeriram o seguinte: (1) considerando a variável coletiva que descreve o subsistema diádico de no Rugby, verificou-se que o contacto físico entre os jogadores (placagem) aumenta a complexidade do comportamento emergente, tornando-o mais previsível em situações em que o Ensaio é marcado, (2) no Futsal (5 vs 4 + GK numa área de 20×20m2), o tamanho da RD foi medida para avaliar como as equipas gerem o espaço- a equipa que ataca apresenta uma RD maior do que a equipa que defende, e os atacantes apresentam um comportamento espacial mais regular, o que significa que o comportamento espacial da equipa que defende é mais imprevisível; (3) a %AL permitiu detetar baixos níveis de interação diádica exclusiva quando a equipa que está a defender se encontra em desvantagem numérica; e (4) a Max% AS permite identificar o atacante que se encontra sob mais pressão

Ape duos and trios: spontaneous cooperation with free partner choice in chimpanzees

The purpose of the present study was to push the boundaries of cooperation among captive chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). There has been doubt about the level of cooperation that chimpanzees are able to spontaneously achieve or understand. Would they, without any pre-training or restrictions in partner choice, be able to develop successful joint action? And would they be able to extend cooperation to more than two partners, as they do in nature? Chimpanzees were given a chance to cooperate with multiple partners of their own choosing. All members of the group (N = 11) had simultaneous access to an apparatus that required two (dyadic condition) or three (triadic condition) individuals to pull in a tray baited with food. Without any training, the chimpanzees spontaneously solved the task a total of 3,565 times in both dyadic and triadic combinations. Their success rate and efficiency increased over time, whereas the amount of pulling in the absence of a partner decreased, demonstrating that they had learned the task contingencies. They preferentially approached the apparatus when kin or nonkin of similar rank were present, showing a preference for socially tolerant partners. The forced partner combinations typical of cooperation experiments cannot reveal these abilities, which demonstrate that in the midst of a complex social environment, chimpanzees spontaneously initiate and maintain a high level of cooperative behavior

Quantifying and Forecasting Vulnerability to Dyadic Conflict in an Integrated Assessment Model: Modeling International Relations Theory

The character of state interaction matters. This dissertation quantifies this interaction from 1960-2001 and then forecasts it from 2010-2050. I contribute to the field of International Relations by improving traditional measures of Realism and Liberalism, quantifying new perspectives sensitive to cultural interaction, and statistically evaluating these indices relative to the occurrence of conflict. It is the first step in an academic research agenda that desires to expand the scope of possibility regarding the modeling of International Relations theory for the purpose of theory evaluation and policy analysis. This dissertation spans two fields of study that do not typically overlap: International Relations and Integrated Assessment Modeling. I begin by laying a broad foundation to bridge this chasm. I do this by first exploring knowledge constraints associated with forecasting. This leads to an overview of my conceptual and empirical tool for calibrating my final model: the historic occurrence of international conflict. Next, I introduce conceptual and applied systems theory, which leads to an overview of the International Futures (IFs) model. I then explore Liberalism and Realism as they have been traditionally operationalized at the macro-level. A newly quantified variable--referred to as the Cultures of Interaction Index-- is introduced that builds on Liberal notions and tries to explain some aspect of intersubjective norms and values operating in a dyad. I perform statistical analysis on these indices and show that using IR theories in conjunction explains more of the historic occurrence of conflict--and thus the character of state interaction--than using any theoretical tradition in isolation. I then endogenize Liberalism and Realism in IFs and use the cultural measure as an exogenous constant. I am interested in whether the stock of culture in a dyad and growth in Liberal notions of interdependence can off-set negative pressures arising from Realism. Most dyads improve their character of interaction to 2050, but some become more conflictual, including China - US and China - India. The analysis is extended by looking at long-term structural shifts in the global system: depleted fossil fuel reserves, stressed fresh water availability and tension from domestic instability. I conclude by offering a series of next steps that builds upon this work and recommendations for policy planners concerned with the future of interstate relations

Dynamics in the European Air Transport Network, 2003-9 : an explanatory framework drawing on stochastic actor-based modeling

In this paper, we outline and test an explanatory framework drawing on stochastic actor-based modeling to understand changes in the outline of European air transport networks between 2003 and 2009. Stochastic actor-based models show their capabilities to estimate and test the effect of exogenous and endogenous drivers on network changes in this application to the air transport network. Our results reveal that endogenous structural effects, such as transitivity triads, indirect relations and betweenness effects impact the development of the European air transport network in the period under investigation. In addition, exogenous nodal and dyadic covariates also play a role, with above all the enlargement of the European Common Aviation Area having benefitted its new members to open more air routes between them. The emergence of major low-cost airline-focused airports also significantly contributed to these changes. We conclude by outlining some avenues for further research