POLICY SPACE: WHAT, FOR WHAT, AND WHERE?

The paper examines how developing countries can use existing policy space, and enlarge it, without opting out of international commitments. It argues that: (i) a meaningful context for policy space must extend beyond trade policy and include macroeconomic and exchange-rate policies that will achieve developmental goals more effectively; (ii) policy space depends not only on international rules but also on the impact of international market conditions and policy decisions taken in other countries on the effectiveness of national policy instruments; and (iii) international integration affects policy space through several factors that pull in opposite directions; whether it increases or reduces policy space differs by country and type of integration.

The alternative of green open space management in Jakarta City, Indonesia

At the present time, the application of policy management of urban green open space of Jakarta have many weakness that caused by overlapping management. There are three institutions of management of urban green open space, those are Park Service (Dinas Pertamanan),, Forest Service (Dinas Kehutanan),, and Agricultural Service (Dinas Pertanian), which are all of them are under the scope of local government of DKI Jakarta. The management consists of several basic activities, including planning and controlling, organizing, human resources, coordination and financing. The prominent indicator associated with the managing urban green open space that related to the aspect of "market failure", it is commonly indicated by public goods, asymmetry of information, externality and aspect of “government failure”. It is also indicated by problems lingered around regulation of law, bureaucracy and bureaucrat agent. The core of the main problems in the policy of management formulation of urban green open space in Jakarta is the lack of managements" of urban green open space of DKI Jakarta. This was indicated by variety of critics coming from the members of society in DKI Jakarta about the function of it, where it will result the impact of environment.In the relation to that problem, there are two questions raised: a. What caused the management of the urban green open space in DKI Jakarta unsuccessful? b. What kind of factors that hampered the management of the urban green open space? As the follow up of the questions above is giving the alternatives to solve that hampered, then, the question is, How is the policy alternative to solve the lack of management of the urban green open space in DKI JakartaThe objective of study is getting the policy to manage the urban green open space in DKI Jakarta. The reflecting of the objective above was explained in the set of policy such as in the regulation and the institutional

Discretizing Continuous Action Space for On-Policy Optimization

In this work, we show that discretizing action space for continuous control is a simple yet powerful technique for on-policy optimization. The explosion in the number of discrete actions can be efficiently addressed by a policy with factorized distribution across action dimensions. We show that the discrete policy achieves significant performance gains with state-of-the-art on-policy optimization algorithms (PPO, TRPO, ACKTR) especially on high-dimensional tasks with complex dynamics. Additionally, we show that an ordinal parameterization of the discrete distribution can introduce the inductive bias that encodes the natural ordering between discrete actions. This ordinal architecture further significantly improves the performance of PPO/TRPO.Comment: Accepted at AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence (2020) in New York, NY, USA. An open source implementation can be found at https://github.com/robintyh1/onpolicybaseline