Flower heating following anthesis and the evolution of gall midge pollination in Schisandraceae

Premise of the study: Flower heating is known from a few species in 11 of the c. 450 families of flowering plants. Flowers in these families produce heat metabolically and are adapted to beetles or flies as pollinators. Here, we focus on the Schisandraceae, an American/Asian plant family known to exhibit flower heating in some species, but not others, raising the question of the adaptive function of heat production. Methods: We used field observations, experiments, and ancestral trait reconstruction on a molecular phylogeny for Schisandraceae that includes the investigated species. Key results: At least two Chinese species of Illicium are exclusively pollinated by gall midges that use the flowers as brood sites (not for pollen feeding). Continuous monitoring of flower temperatures revealed that the highest temperatures were attained after the flowers’ sexual functions were over, and experiments showed that post-anthetic warming benefited larval development, not fruit development. Midge larvae in flowers with trimmed tepals (and hence a lower temperature) died, but fruit set ratios remained unchanged. Based on the DNA phylogeny, gall midge pollination evolved from general fly/beetle pollination several times in Schisandraceae, with some species adapted to flower-breeding midges, others to pollen-feeding midges. Conclusions: Flower heating may be an ancestral trait in Schisandraceae that became co-opted in species pollinated by flower-breeding midges requiring long-persistent warm chambers for larval development

Pollination biology of Aristolochia tagala, a rare species of medicinal importance

Floral phenology, pollination biology and breeding system were studied in Aristolochia tagala Cham (Aristolochiaceae) grown under ex situ conditions. The flower exhibits structural features typical of fly-trap mechanism described for other Aristolochia species. Flowers show pronounced protogyny. Stigmas are receptive at anthesis and remain so for 24 h. Anthers dehisce 45– 48 h after anthesis by which time stigma receptivity is lost. Chironomid fly (Diptera) is the pollinator. Attracted by the odour and colour of the flower, the flies enter it and are detained in the chamber of the perianthtube (where the anthers and stigma are located) for nearly 50 h. Their escape is prevented by the presence of dense downward-pointing hairs in the perianth tube. The nectaries provide food to the insects. Following anther dehiscence, the thorax of the flies becomes loaded with sticky pollen grains. Hairs on the inner wall of the perianth tube wither and facilitate the exit of the flies. When a fly carrying the pollen load enters a fresh flower, it brings about pollination. Manual pollinations showed that the species permits geitonogamous pollination. The percentage of fruit set in manually pollinated flowers is higher than that resulting from open pollination, confirming that pollination is a limitation for fruit set in the ex situ-grown population. Nevertheless, fruit and seed set is sufficiently high for ex situ conservation purposes

Northern-Most North American Flower Visitation Records of the Introduced Flower Fly, \u3ci\u3eSyritta Flaviventris\u3c/i\u3e (Diptera: Syrphidae) and Comparisons With Sympatric Species, \u3ci\u3eSyritta Pipiens\u3c/i\u3e

We report for the first time the syrphid fly, Syritta flaviventris (Macquart), collected in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, as the northern-most record for this introduced Mediterranean species. In total, 3 male specimens and 1 female specimen were net collected on three flower species (Verbena hastata, Eryngium yuccifolium and Asclepias incarnata), at a single site of 11 monitored farm sites in southern Pennsylvania. Floral records for the similar introduced sibling species, Syritta pipiens (L.), are presented as well. Passive monitoring with colored pan traps used to monitor bee populations at these sites was not effective in collecting either species of Syritta. Our study suggests that increased active net sampling of Syritta species may provide more information about this genus\u27 distribution in the New World and support future research efforts examining Syritta biology and life history

The beast initiate: the lycanthropy of Heracles

The obscurantist Hellenistic poet Lycophron referenced the initiation of Heracles as a beast suckling the breast of the goddess Hera. This was the event that was the mythological origin of the Galaxy and of the lily flower that incarnated the same deifying essence as the celestial milk of the goddess and it was the etiology for the domestication of felines. As the Lion of Nemea, Heracles was the greatest of the wild cats. The lily was an analogue of a sacred mushroom, as the narkissos of Persephone’s abduction by Hades. The event of the lactation of Heracles is depicted on four Etruscan mirrors and a Faliscan-Hellenic red-figure krater. The deifying milk-flower of the goddess was a ritual of adoption into the family of the celestial deities, that Hera performed also with two other bastard sons of Zeus, Hermes and Dionysus. As the beast being initiated, Heracles became a wolf. Like the motif of the domestication of the cat, the lycanthropy of Heracles involves the whole family of canines, from the domesticated dog to its wilder antecedents in the wolf and its analogue as the fox. The lycanthropy initiation is a bacchanalian rite of root- cutters and is a motif of warrior brotherhood widespread among the Indo-European peoples.Published versio

Femininity Aspect as Reflected in Lisa See\u27s Snow Flower and the Secret Fan

The purpose of this study is to describe forms opression faced by Chinese women in the nineteenth century as reflected in te novel “Snow Flower and the Secret Fan” written by Lisa See, then to find out the way of the Chinese women to minimize their secluded life. This study is carried out with descriptive research which is collected with documentary technique and used a documentary sheet as the instrument. The finding indicates about the idea of femininity aspect that describes in the oppression faced by Chinese women. This oppression derives into three forms of oppression; emotional oppression, physical oppression, and sexual oppression. The Chinese women try to obey the particular custom judge by the culture to construct the femininity aspect, but secretly they tru to find a way to minimize their secluded life through Nu Shu (secret writing) and having a baby boy. It is hoped that the result of this study will be useful to anyone who wants to study women life situation in a certain communities

Prevention and control of weeds, pests and diseases

Weed control still requires major investments of money and labour in organic arable farming and field vegetable cultivation. For this reason, current research is focused to a large extent on the development of weed control strategies. These incorporate prevention as well as mechanical methods, and cover a range of approaches. From inexpensive techniques to very innovative technologies. Research into pests and diseases primarily focuses on improving systems and preventing infestation. However, even with maximum prevention measures some pests and diseases still cause unacceptable damage. For these residual problems control measures are being develope

Some Insects Injurious to Red Clover

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