A idealização da alteridade: reflexões sobre seus fundamentos na história ocidental

Así como fueron considerados “salvajes” o “atrasados”, los nativos de las tierras colonizadas por los europeos también han sido objeto de elogios que han llegado hasta la idealización, y que han surgido especialmente entre las élites intelectuales de origen europeo. Este último tipo de discursos e imaginarios, relativamente poco comunes y escasamente estudiados, parece contraponerse al racismo e invitaría a una valoración de la diversidad cultural. Sin embargo, este artículo tiene como objetivo plantear un análisis crítico de dicho elogio de la alteridad, el cual, contrariamente a lo que se suele creer, no es un avance intelectual reciente, sino un discurso basado en antiguos mitos premodernos. Para alcanzar este objetivo, se hizo un análisis hermenéutico de los discursos de autores y colectivos reconocidos en Occidente, quienes han recurrido a términos connotados positivamente para describir las culturas de pueblos no europeos. En esos discursos se observaron algunos patrones generales, lo cual permitió relacionarlos con estructuras míticas de larga duración, tales como el mito cristiano del Jardín del Edén y el mito grecolatino de una Edad de Oro. Como una prolongación de esto, hoy se puede considerar al Otro “natural” y “tradicional” como el ejemplo de un ser humano admirable. No obstante, en este artículo se concluye que ese tipo de representaciones, aunque hoy estimadas como políticamente correctas, se basan en versiones esencializadas de la alteridad, las cuales en realidad reproducen ideales hegemónicos y contribuyen a ocultar la complejidad de la diversidad cultural.Just as the natives of lands colonized by Europeans were considered "wild" or "slow," they have also been the object of praise that has gone as far as idealization, and that have emerged especially among the intellectual elites of European origin. This last type of discourses and imaginaries, relatively rare and scarcely studied, seems to be opposed to racism and would invite an appreciation of cultural diversity. However, this article aims to propose a critical analysis of this praise of alterity, which, contrary to what is usually believed, is not a recent intellectual advance, but a discourse based on ancient pre-modern myths. To achieve this goal, a hermeneutic analysis of the discourses of authors and collectives recognized in the West, who have resorted to positively connoted terms to describe the cultures of non-European peoples was made. In these discourses, some general patterns were observed, which allowed them to be related to mythical structures of long duration, such as the Christian myth of the Garden of Eden and the Greek-Latin myth of a Golden Age. As an extension of this, today we can consider the Other "natural" and "traditional" as the example of an admirable human being. However, in this article it is concluded that such representations, although nowadays considered as politically correct, are based on specialized versions of alterity, which in reality reproduce hegemonic ideals and contribute to hide the complexity of the cultural diversity.Assim como foram considerados “selvagens” ou “atrasados” os nativos das terras colonizadas pelos europeus, também foram objeto de elogios que chegaram até a idealização e que surgiram especialmente entre as elites intelectuais de origem europeia. Este último tipo de discursos e imaginários, relativamente pouco comuns e escassamente estudados, parece contrapor-se ao racismo e convida a uma valorização da diversidade cultural. Contudo, este artigo tem como objetivo propor uma análise crítica do elogio da alteridade, o qual, ao contrário do que se costuma acreditar, não é um avanço intelectual recente, mas sim um discurso baseado em antigos mitos pré-modernos. Para atingir esse objetivo, fez-se uma análise hermenêutica dos discursos de autores e coletivos reconhecidos no Ocidente, os que têm recorrido a termos conotados positivamente para descrever as culturas de povos não europeus. Nesses discursos, foram observados alguns padrões gerais, o que permitiu relacioná-los com estruturas míticas de longa duração, tais como o mito cristão do Jardim do Éden e o mito greco-latino de uma Idade do Ouro. Como uma prolongação disso, hoje pode-se considerar o Outro “natural” e “tradicional” como o exemplo de um ser humano admirável. No entanto, neste artigo, conclui-se que esse tipo de representações, embora hoje estimadas como politicamente corretas, estão baseadas em versões essencializadas da alteridade, as quais, em realidade, produzem ideais hegemônicos e contribuem para ocultar a complexidade da diversidade cultural.https://revistas.udem.edu.co/index.php/anagramas/article/view/191

The Economics of Life ++ - Reflections on the Term of Copyright

Copyright, and indeed all intellectual property, reflects a compromise between the need for reward on creations we see – by reserving them to the creator – and the need to let information freely flow so as to permit further creations to emerge with as few encumbrances as possible. Over the past quarter century or so, all parameters of copyright have been moved towards more protection, disturbing the underlying compromise. The term of protection extends well beyond what is practically useful for the vast majority of creators, much as it may serve the needs of a small number of large players who hold important older copyrights still producing revenue. This paradoxical situation results from a few founding principles considered untouchable in the countries members of the Berne Convention: it is automatically obtained, without formality and for a uniform and rather lengthy term. If we want to redress the balance underlying copyright, we may have to call these principles into question and lead creators individually to reveal the value they attach to their right by renewing it, allowing it to lapse into the public domain when they no longer value it. Whilst this would reintroduce formalities into the structure of copyright, technological advances may make these less of a burden than they were at the time of their abolition. Alternatively, one might consider an interpretation of equitable exceptions to copyright (such as fair use and fair dealing) so as to expand them gradually as the copyright in question ages. Such approaches would have the fortunate effect of avoiding that lobbying by the happy few needlessly locks up culture for most of us. Le droit d'auteur, et à vrai dire tous les droits intellectuels, reflète un compromis entre la nécessité de faire miroiter au créateur une rémunération pour les créations que l'on voit, et la nécessité de laisser l'information circuler librement de manière à permettre à de nouvelles créations d'émerger avec aussi peu d'obstacles que possible. Au cours du dernier quart de siècle ou à peu près, tous les paramètres du droit d'auteur ont été déplacés vers plus de protection, perturbant l'équilibre sous-jacent. La durée de protection s'étend bien au-delà de ce qui est nécessaire en pratique pour la très vaste majorité des créateurs, même si elle sert bien les besoins d'une infime minorité de grands joueurs détenant des droits d'auteur qui ont un certain âge mais continuent à produire des revenus. Cette situation résulte des principes tenus pour immuables dans les pays membres de l'Union de Berne : le droit est obtenu automatiquement, sans formalité et pour une période uniforme et de longue durée. Pour redresser l'équilibre sous-jacent au droit d'auteur, il faudra remettre en question ces principes et amener les créateurs individuellement à révéler la valeur qu'ils attachent à leur droit en le renouvelant, permettant que le droit glisse dans le domaine public s'ils n'y attachent plus de valeur suffisante. S'il est vrai qu'une telle approche réintroduirait des formalités dans le droit d'auteur, les avances techniques intervenues depuis leur abolition rendent l'accomplissement de ces formalités moins onéreux que dans le temps. Alternativement, on pourrait envisager une interprétation des exceptions équitables au droit d'auteur, comme le fair use ou l'utilisation équitable, de manière à les étendre à mesure que le droit d'auteur en question prend de l'âge. De telles approches auraient l'heureux effet d'éviter que le lobbying par les happy few entrainerait le verrouillage inutile de beaucoup de culture pour le commun des mortels.Intellectual property, copyright, term, fair dealing, Propriété intellectuelle, droit d'auteur, durée, utilisation équitable.

Comparative Perspectives of Constitutional Asylum in France, Italy and Germany: Requiescat in Pace?

Most countries provide asylum through domestic legislation, such as a statute incorporating the 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees. France, Italy, and Germany stand out as three of very few European countries specifically to guarantee a right of asylum in their national Constitutions. The origin, wording, and scope of these constitutional provisions vary, depending on historical factors specific to each country. This article examines the right of asylum guaranteed in the Constitutions of France, Italy, and Germany from a historical perspective. It discusses how this right has evolved in all three countries, especially in light of the Refugee Convention and recent European Asylum Legislation. It concludes that however unique and individual constitutional asylum has traditionally been regarded as in France, Italy, and Germany, international obligations and recent European commitments have absorbed its distinctiveness, making it a redundant, almost obsolete, concept

In search of foreign influences, other than French, in nineteenth-century Belgian court decisions

In many senses, nineteenth-century Belgium can be considered to be a 'legal province' of Belgium. In the tradition of the exegetical school, legislation is the one and only formal source of law for judicial decisions. This legislation is primarily composed of the Napoleonic codes. Judges seem to be afraid of referring to other sources. If a ‘foreign’ source is quoted, it is a French one

The Developmental Emergence of the Mental Time-Line: Spatial and Numerical Distortion of Time Judgement

International audienceThe perception of time is susceptible to distortion by factors such as attention, emotion, or even the physical properties of the stimulus to be timed. In adults, there is now evidence for a left-right spatial representation of time or " mental time-line " , in which short durations map to the left side of space, whereas long durations map to the right. We investigated the developmental trajectory of the mental time-line, by examining how spatial and numerical stimulus properties affect temporal bisection judgements in 3 groups of children (5, 8 or 10 year olds), as well as in adults. In contrast to previous developmental studies of the spatial representation of time, we manipulated spatial position (left-right) rather than spatial magnitude (distance) so as to pinpoint the age at which the mental time-line begins to influence the judgement of time. In addition, we manipulated spatial position symbolically, either directly, using left-or right-pointing arrows, or indirectly, using low (1) or high (9) digits. In adults and older children (10 year olds), the rightward arrow and the higher digit were judged to last longer. However, time judgements were unaffected by arrow direction and digits in the younger children. Therefore, the temporal distortions induced by symbolic representations of space (arrows) or number (digits) emerged with development, suggesting that the mental time-line is not derived from a primitive spatial representation of time but, rather, is the fruit of learning and is acquired around the age of 8-10 years old