Recent Advances in Deep Learning Techniques for Face Recognition

In recent years, researchers have proposed many deep learning (DL) methods for various tasks, and particularly face recognition (FR) made an enormous leap using these techniques. Deep FR systems benefit from the hierarchical architecture of the DL methods to learn discriminative face representation. Therefore, DL techniques significantly improve state-of-the-art performance on FR systems and encourage diverse and efficient real-world applications. In this paper, we present a comprehensive analysis of various FR systems that leverage the different types of DL techniques, and for the study, we summarize 168 recent contributions from this area. We discuss the papers related to different algorithms, architectures, loss functions, activation functions, datasets, challenges, improvement ideas, current and future trends of DL-based FR systems. We provide a detailed discussion of various DL methods to understand the current state-of-the-art, and then we discuss various activation and loss functions for the methods. Additionally, we summarize different datasets used widely for FR tasks and discuss challenges related to illumination, expression, pose variations, and occlusion. Finally, we discuss improvement ideas, current and future trends of FR tasks.Comment: 32 pages and citation: M. T. H. Fuad et al., "Recent Advances in Deep Learning Techniques for Face Recognition," in IEEE Access, vol. 9, pp. 99112-99142, 2021, doi: 10.1109/ACCESS.2021.309613

Learning from imbalanced data in face re-identification using ensembles of classifiers

Face re-identification is a video surveillance application where systems for video-to-video face recognition are designed using faces of individuals captured from video sequences, and seek to recognize them when they appear in archived or live videos captured over a network of video cameras. Video-based face recognition applications encounter challenges due to variations in capture conditions such as pose, illumination etc. Other challenges in this application are twofold; 1) the imbalanced data distributions between the face captures of the individuals to be re-identified and those of other individuals 2) varying degree of imbalance during operations w.r.t. the design data. Learning from imbalanced data is challenging in general due in part to the bias of performance in most two-class classification systems towards correct classification of the majority (negative, or non-target) class (face images/frames captured from the individuals in not to be re-identified) better than the minority (positive, or target) class (face images/frames captured from the individual to be re-identified) because most two-class classification systems are intended to be used under balanced data condition. Several techniques have been proposed in the literature to learn from imbalanced data that either use data-level techniques to rebalance data (by under-sampling the majority class, up-sampling the minority class, or both) for training classifiers or use algorithm-level methods to guide the learning process (with or without cost sensitive approaches) such that the bias of performance towards correct classification of the majority class is neutralized. Ensemble techniques such as Bagging and Boosting algorithms have been shown to efficiently utilize these methods to address imbalance. However, there are issues faced by these techniques in the literature: (1) some informative samples may be neglected by random under-sampling and adding synthetic positive samples through upsampling adds to training complexity, (2) cost factors must be pre-known or found, (3) classification systems are often optimized and compared using performance measurements (like accuracy) that are unsuitable for imbalance problem; (4) most learning algorithms are designed and tested on a fixed imbalance level of data, which may differ from operational scenarios; The objective of this thesis is to design specialized classifier ensembles to address the issue of imbalance in the face re-identification application and as sub-goals avoiding the abovementioned issues faced in the literature. In addition achieving an efficient classifier ensemble requires a learning algorithm to design and combine component classifiers that hold suitable diversity-accuracy trade off. To reach the objective of the thesis, four major contributions are made that are presented in three chapters summarized in the following. In Chapter 3, a new application-based sampling method is proposed to group samples for under-sampling in order to improve diversity-accuracy trade-off between classifiers of the ensemble. The proposed sampling method takes the advantage of the fact that in face re-identification applications, facial regions of a same person appearing in a camera field of view may be regrouped based on their trajectories found by face tracker. A partitional Bagging ensemble method is proposed that accounts for possible variations in imbalance level of the operational data by combining classifiers that are trained on different imbalance levels. In this method, all samples are used for training classifiers and information loss is therefore avoided. In Chapter 4, a new ensemble learning algorithm called Progressive Boosting (PBoost) is proposed that progressively inserts uncorrelated groups of samples into a Boosting procedure to avoid loosing information while generating a diverse pool of classifiers. From one iteration to the next, the PBoost algorithm accumulates these uncorrelated groups of samples into a set that grows gradually in size and imbalance. This algorithm is more sophisticated than the one proposed in Chapter 3 because instead of training the base classifiers on this set, the base classifiers are trained on balanced subsets sampled from this set and validated on the whole set. Therefore, the base classifiers are more accurate while the robustness to imbalance is not jeopardized. In addition, the sample selection is based on the weights that are assigned to samples which correspond to their importance. In addition, the computation complexity of PBoost is lower than Boosting ensemble techniques in the literature for learning from imbalanced data because not all of the base classifiers are validated on all negative samples. A new loss factor is also proposed to be used in PBoost to avoid biasing performance towards the negative class. Using this loss factor, the weight update of samples and classifier contribution in final predictions are set according to the ability of classifiers to recognize both classes. In comparing the performance of the classifier systems in Chapter 3 and 4, a need is faced for an evaluation space that compares classifiers in terms of a suitable performance metric over all of their decision thresholds, different imbalance levels of test data, and different preference between classes. The F-measure is often used to evaluate two-class classifiers on imbalanced data, and no global evaluation space was available in the literature for this measure. Therefore, in Chapter 5, a new global evaluation space for the F-measure is proposed that is analogous to the cost curves for expected cost. In this space, a classifier is represented as a curve that shows its performance over all of its decision thresholds and a range of possible imbalance levels for the desired preference of true positive rate to precision. These properties are missing in ROC and precision-recall spaces. This space also allows us to empirically improve the performance of specialized ensemble learning methods for imbalance under a given operating condition. Through a validation, the base classifiers are combined using a modified version of the iterative Boolean combination algorithm such that the selection criterion in this algorithm is replaced by F-measure instead of AUC, and the combination is carried out for each operating condition. The proposed approaches in this thesis were validated and compared using synthetic data and videos from the Faces In Action, and COX datasets that emulate face re-identification applications. Results show that the proposed techniques outperforms state of the art techniques over different levels of imbalance and overlap between classes