Product vs corporate carbon footprint: Some methodological issues. A case study and review on the wine sector

Carbon footprint (CF) is nowadays one of the most widely used environmental indicators. The scope of the CF assessment could be corporate (when all production processes of a company are evaluated, together with upstream and downstream processes following a life cycle approach) or product (when one of the products is evaluated throughout its life cycle). Our hypothesis was that usually product CF studies (PCF) collect corporate data, because it is easier for companies to obtain them than product data. Six main methodological issues to take into account when collecting corporate data to be used for PCF studies were postulated and discussed in the present paper: fugitive emissions, credits from waste recycling, use of “equivalent factors”, reference flow definition, accumulation and allocation of corporate values to minor products. A big project with 18 wineries, being wine one of the most important agri-food products assessed through CF methodologies, was used to study and to exemplify these 6 methodological issues. One of the main conclusions was that indeed, it is possible to collect corporate inventory data in a per year basis to perform a PCF, but having in mind the 6 methodological issues described here. In the literature, most of the papers are presenting their results as a PCF, while they collected company data and obtained, in fact, a “key performance indicator” (ie., CO2eq emissions per unit of product produced), which is then used as a product environmental impact figure. The methodology discussed in this paper for the wine case study is widely applicable to any other product or industrial activity

Life cycle assessment synthesis of the carbon footprint of Arabica coffee: Case study of Brazil and Vietnam conventional and sustainable coffee production and export to the United Kingdom

Over 9.5 billion kg of coffee is produced annually and demand is expected to triple by 2050. Hence, the identification and quantification of the greenhouse gas emission footprint of coffee is essential if it is to become a more sustainable crop. We have produced a detailed life cycle assessment of the carbon equivalent footprint of coffee produced in Brazil and Vietnam and exported to the United Kingdom. The average carbon footprint of Arabica coffee from both countries was calculated as 15.33 (±0.72) kg of carbon dioxide equivalent per 1 kg of green coffee (kg CO2e kg−1 ) for conventional coffee production and 3.51 (±0.13) kg CO2e kg−1 for sustainable coffee production. The 77% reduction in carbon footprint for sustainable coffee production in comparison to conventional production was due to exportation of coffee beans via cargo ship rather than freight flight and the reduction of agrochemical inputs. Based on our results, further reductions could be made through optimal use of agrochemicals; reduced packaging; more efficient water heating; renewable energy use; roasting beans before exportation; and carbon offsetting. Applying these recommendations correctly through certification schemes could mitigate other environmental impacts of coffee cultivation

Analysing the carbon footprint of food

In Europe, food consumption is responsible for approximately 30% of total greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. There has been huge interest in estimating the carbon footprint (CF) of food products, i.e. the total amount of GHG emitted during the life cycle of the product, and communicating these to consumers to enable them to make informed choices. This thesis provides additional knowledge of several related issues regarding calculating and acting on the CF of food products in order to facilitate the design of effective consumer communication strategies. The uncertainty in the CF of Swedish potatoes and pasta was established to investigate the detail to which food CF can be determined. For a well-defined geographical area the uncertainty was in the range ±10-30%, indicating that the CF uncertainty for more complex foods or foods with a more unspecific origin is considerably higher. Emissions of N₂O from soils dominated the emissions and uncertainties, and yield was an influential parameter for all crops. Possible risks of pollution swapping when acting on CF were investigated in the case of meat production. For meat from monogastric animals, in most cases the CF functions as an indicator for land, energy and pesticide use, and for acidification and eutrophication potential, but for ruminant meat there are possible conflicts with biodiversity, energy and pesticide use. In an attempt to develop a tool that communicates the CF of meat in an efficient way, while highlighting important trade-offs, a criteria-based meat guide based on the knowledge gained was developed. A critical review of CF labelling from a consumer perspective showed that obstacles known to prevent purchase of organic foods, e.g. perceived high price and strong habits, apply equally or more so to the purchase of CF labelled foods. Hence, CF labelling of food in a retail setting is of limited effectiveness, but CF values are important in business-to-business communication, in policy development and for developing efficient and scientifically justified consumer communication messages. Quantification of the reduction potential from a commonly recommended option, 'eating seasonal', showed that consuming tomatoes and carrots seasonally in Sweden could reduce the CF by 30-60%. This is a substantial reduction for these products, but a small reduction in view of the total GHG emissions from the complete average diet. This illustrates the importance of calculating CF values of food and setting the results in perspective

Sustainability and innovation of the sweet cherry supply chain

La ciliegia (Prunus Avium L.) è uno dei frutti più apprezzati a livello mondiale grazie alle caratteristiche organolettiche (gusto, dolcezza e colore) e alla naturale presenza di nutrienti, antiossidanti e altri composti. L'Italia è il quarto produttore mondiale di ciliegie dopo Turchia, Stati Uniti d'America e Iran (Repubblica dell'Islam). In particolare, la Puglia rappresenta la prima regione italiana di produzione di ciliegie che ha contribuito nel 2017 per il 32% alla produzione nazionale annuale. Attualmente il suo settore deve affrontare continue sfide economiche, ambientali e sociali per rimanere competitivi sul mercato globale. È necessario cercare soluzioni, ad esempio tecnologie innovative, che migliorino la produttività, la redditività e la sostenibilità secondo quanto previsto anche dalle recenti norme agricole europee (PAC 2014-2020) che promuovano l'innovazione/internazionalizzazione dell'impresa attraverso specifici finanziamenti. La ricerca fornisce informazioni importanti per promuovere e migliorare la filiera cerasicola in termini di sostenibilità ambientale, economica e sociale applicando la metodologia del Carbon Footprint (CF), basata sull’approccio del Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), su dati reali di produzione e di trasformazione della ciliegia forniti da aziende situate in Puglia. Nello specifico è presentato un caso studio sulla produzione agricola e confezionamento di ciliegie di due aziende situate in Puglia (Sud Italia). Esso comprende la gestione del frutteto dalla fase di coltivazione in serra delle piantine a quella di raccolta, considerando l'intero ciclo di vita del frutteto pari a 20 anni; e la lavorazione delle ciliegie dolci, dalla raccolta nel frutteto al centro raccolto dove vengono confezionate per la vendita. L’analisi evidenzia gli impatti derivanti dalla fase di gestione agricola sono pari a 0.656 kgCO2eq, quelli relativi alla fase di lavorazione sono 0.068 kgCO2eq, mentre quelli della fase di produzione dei cestini in PET è pari a 0.0744 kgCO2eq. Per quanto riguarda la fase agricola, invece, il principale impatto deriva dal consumo di energia elettrica per l’estrazione di acqua delle falde acquifere per le attività di irrigazione e di fertirrigazione (15,6% del totale di kgCO2eq), dal trasporto del letame (4,7% del totale di kgCO2eq) e dalla aratura (3,53% del totale di kgCO2eq). Quanto osservato nel presente studio potrebbe contribuire a fornire informazioni utili agli agricoltori, all'industria alimentare e a chiunque ne abbia interesse per promuovere o migliorare la filiera cerasicola in termini di sostenibilità ambientale. Inoltre, la ricerca ha creato una base per lo sviluppo di una specifica certificazione di prodotto (etichettatura del carbonio) che tenga conto delle pratiche aziendali sostenibili adottate. In questo modo, i produttori/imprenditori del settore hanno l'opportunità di comunicare ai consumatori (sempre più attenti a questi aspetti) le loro politiche di sostenibilità così da rafforzare e migliorare la reputazione aziendale.Sweet cherry (Prunus avium L.) is one of the most appreciated fruits worldwide thanks to the organoleptic characteristics (i.e. taste, sweetness and colour) as well as the natural presence of nutrients, antioxidants and other healthy compounds such as i.e. flavonoids, vitamins, anthocyanins and phenolic. Italy is the fourth top world cherries producer after Turkey, United States of America, and Iran (Islam Republic of). In particular, Apulia represents the first Italian cherry production region contributing in 2017 with 32% to the annual national production. Although this fruit is important worldwide, its sector has to face continuous challenges in different fields i.e. economic, environmental and social to remain competitive on the global market. For these reasons, it is needed to search solutions (for instance introducing innovation technologies) that improve productivity, profitability and sustainability according to agricultural European rules (i.e. Common Agricultural Policy – CAP 2014-2020) that promote the innovation/internationalization of enterprise through operational funds. The research presents a case study of cherries supply chain managed by two firms situated in Apulia region (South Italy). The aim is to calculate GHG emissions of the sweet cherry, according to CF methodology based on Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) approach. The supply chain considered two phases: agriculture and processing. The former includes orchard management from nursery to harvesting and considering the entire orchard life cycle equal to 20 years; whereas the latter examines the processing of sweet cherries, from harvesting in the orchard to the collected centre where they are packaged for the fresh market. The study highlights that the GWP100 associated with the system investigated is equal to 0.798 kg CO2eq per 0.5 kg of fresh sweet cherry packed in PET clamshell. In particular, the study shown that the impacts coming from the agricultural management stage is equal to 0.656 kgCO2eq, the processing is 0.068 kgCO2eq and clamshell PET production is 0.0744 kgCO2eq.vAs regard the orchard phase, the principal impact derives from the full production where the most GWP100 impact is represented by the utilisation of the groundwater pumping station (electricity, low voltage production) for the irrigation and fertigation activities (15.6% of the total CO2eq), by the transport of manure (4.7% of the total CO2eq) and by the ploughing (3.53% of the total CO2eq). These results could contributes to provide information to stakeholders involved in the sweet cherry supply chain to promote or enhance a sweet cherry production mainly environmental sustainable

Proposal for a LCA improvement roadmap in the Agri-food sector based on information exchange requirements and the enclosed data in recent LCAs works

Innovation is essential to promote human progress and to improve the humans' quality of life, but it should be done in a social and environmental context and in accordance with the principles of sustainable development. To achieve this challenge the environmental innovation guidelines should be taken into account. In this line, it is necessary to analyze the life cycle assessment (LCA) of any product, process or service and compute its environmental impacts. Despite the rapid evolution of environmental methods and tools and the increase of sustainability studies in recent years, LCA remains an area that still has to face major development challenges. This thesis provides an analysis from a new perspective with the intention to serve as a support in the conceptual and empirical application of the LCA in the Agri-food sector. It consists of a qualitative analysis designed to know the type of relationship between the different actors involved and their information exchange needs. The case study made it possible to compare the differences between the academic and the industrial fields, as well as the differences between Spanish and Brazilian LCA experts. Through expert panels, 40 specialists were interviewed and were asked to made a survey to evaluate experts' relationships using the Social Network Analysis method (SNA). Moreover, the network flow of environmental information in Brazil and Spain was mapped. A second quantitative study was carried out reviewing 70 scientific publications of LCA in the Agri-food sector according to a checklist based on the definition of 20 control variables. The objective was to evaluate the quantity and quality of the information enclosed in the different works. To do this, the entropy and diversity of information were calculated using the Shannon and the equitability indexes, using the number of inputs considered in each impact category. A threshold of minimum information is proposed, using percentiles 25 and 75 (Tukey values) of the calculated Shannon indexes from the papers sample. Moreover, a cluster analysis was done using 10 out the 20 control variable to classify LCAs into clusters with similar levels of performance for the LCAs of the same group and different from the LCA belonging to the other groups. Based on the analysis of the centers of resulting group, the strengths and weaknesses of each group were identified. Then, a roadmap or improvement plan was succinctly defined, pointing out the actions to be taken to improve the performance levels in each group in the short, medium and long term. Finally, a set of actions to improve and facilitate the implementation of LCA in the Agri-food sector was defined as a kind of good practice manual. In sum, it could be concluded that this present thesis could serve to improve the LCA studies performance levels for industry, and, at the same time, it could serve as a baseline with which to compare academic standards of a more academic works.La innovación es esencial para promover el progreso de la humanidad y la mejora de la calidad de vida, pero debe realizarse respetando un suelo social y un techo ambiental de acuerdo con los principios del desarrollo sostenible. Para intentar conseguirlo surge la innovación ambiental. En esa línea, resulta necesario analizar el ciclo de vida (ACV) de cualquier producto, proceso o servicio y computar sus impactos ambientales. A pesar de la rápida evolución de los métodos y herramientas y del incremento de estudios en los últimos años, el ACV sigue siendo un área que se enfrenta a retos de desarrollo importantes. Esta tesis proporciona un análisis desde una perspectiva nueva con la intención de servir de apoyo en la aplicación conceptual y empírica del ACV en el sector agroalimentario. Consta de un análisis cualitativo destinado a conocer el tipo de relación entre los distintos actores involucrados y sus necesidades de intercambio de información. El caso de aplicación permite comparar las diferencias entre el mundo académico y el industrial, así como las diferencias entre expertos en ACV de España y Brasil. A través de paneles de expertos se entrevistó a 40 especialistas y con un cuestionario se evaluó la red de contactos usando el método de Análisis de Redes Sociales (SNA). Con todo se mapeó el flujo de información ambiental en Brasil y España. En un segundo estudio cuantitativo se realizó una revisión crítica de 70 publicaciones científicas de ACV pertenecientes al sector agroalimentario, evaluando las mejores revistas y congresos de todo el mundo entre 2010 y 2016 a partir de la definición de 20 variables de control. El objetivo era evaluar la cantidad y calidad de la información contenida en los distintos trabajos. Para ello se calculó la entropía y diversidad de la información a través del Índice de Shannon y del cálculo de la heterogeneidad en lo refiere al número de inputs considerados en cada categoría de impacto. Tras los valores obtenidos se proponen unos umbrales de información mínima aconsejable usando como límites el valor de las bisagras de Tukey de la distribución de los 70 índices de Shannon calculados. Por otra parte, a partir de 10 de las 20 variables de control se agruparon los distintos ACV analizados con objeto de clasificarlos en grupos con parecido nivel de desempeño para los ACV de un mismo grupo y distinto al de los ACV pertenecientes al resto de grupos. A partir del análisis del análisis de los centros de cada grupo, se identificó las fortalezas y debilidades de cada grupo, para más tarde definir de forma sucinta un mapa de ruta o plan de mejora apuntando las acciones a realizar para mejorar los niveles de desempeño en el corto, medio y largo plazo de cada grupo. Finalmente, se definió a modo de un manual de buenas prácticas un conjunto de acciones a realizar para mejorar y facilitar la realización de ACV en el sector agroalimentario. Con todo. Se podría concluir que la tesis puede servir para mejorar los niveles de desempeño de la realización futura de estudios de ACV en el sector industrial, al tiempo que podría servir como línea de base con la que comparar los estándares de estudios de carácter más académico.La innovació és essencial per a promoure el progrés de la humanitat i la millora de la qualitat de vida, però ha de realitzar-se respectant un sòl social i un sostre ambiental d'acord amb els principis del desenrotllament sostenible. Per a intentar aconseguir-ho sorgix la innovació ambiental. En eixa línia, resulta necessari analitzar el cicle de vida (ACV) de qualsevol producte, procés o servici i computar els seus impactes ambientals. A pesar de la ràpida evolució dels mètodes i ferramentes i de l'increment d'estudis en els últims anys, l'ACV continua sent una àrea que s'enfronta a reptes de desenrotllament importants. Esta tesi proporciona una anàlisi des d'una perspectiva nova amb la intenció de servir de suport en l'aplicació conceptual i empírica de l'ACV en el sector agroalimentari. Consta d'una anàlisi qualitativa destinada a conèixer el tipus de relació entre els distints actors involucrats i les seues necessitats d'intercanvi d'informació. El cas d'aplicació permet comparar les diferències entre el món acadèmic i l'industrial, així com les diferències entre experts en ACV d'Espanya i Brasil. A través de panells d'experts es va entrevistar a 40 especialistes i amb un qüestionari es va avaluar la xarxa de contactes usant el mètode d'Anàlisi de Xarxes Socials (SNA). Amb tot es dissenyà el flux d'informació ambiental a Brasil i Espanya. En un segon estudi quantitatiu es va realitzar una revisió crítica de 70 publicacions científiques d'ACV pertanyents al sector agroalimentari, avaluant les millors revistes i congressos de tot el món entre 2010 i 2016 a partir de la definició de 20 variables de control. L'objectiu era avaluar la quantitat i qualitat de la informació continguda en els distints treballs. Per a això es va calcular l'entropia i diversitat de la informació a través de l'Índex de Shannon i del càlcul de l'heterogeneïtat en el que es refereix al nombre d'inputs considerats en cada categoria d'impacte. Després dels valors obtinguts es proposen uns llindars d'informació mínima aconsellable usant com a límits el valor de les frontisses de Tukey de la distribució dels 70 índexs de Shannon calculats. D'altra banda, a partir de 10 de les 20 variables de control es van agrupar els distints ACV analitzats a fi de classificar-los en grups amb paregut nivell d'excel·lència per als ACV d'un mateix grup i diferent del dels ACV pertanyents a la resta de grups. A partir de l'anàlisi de l'anàlisi dels centres de cada grup, es va identificar les fortaleses i debilitats de cada grup, per a més tard definir de forma succinta un mapa de ruta o pla de millora apuntant les accions a realitzar per a millorar els nivells d'exercici en el curt, mitjà i llarg termini de cada grup. Finalment, es va definir a manera d'un manual de bones pràctiques un conjunt d'accions a realitzar per a millorar i facilitar la realització d'ACV en el sector agroalimentari. Amb tot, es podria concloure que la tesi pot servir per a millorar els nivells d'exercici de la realització futura d'estudis d'ACV en el sector industrial, alhora que podria servir com a línia de base amb què comparar els estàndards d'estudis de caràcter més acadèmic.Oliveira Barros, FM. (2017). Proposal for a LCA improvement roadmap in the Agri-food sector based on information exchange requirements and the enclosed data in recent LCAs works [Tesis doctoral no publicada]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/89082TESI

Sustainable lamb meat production for Europe

Sheep production is a crucial sector of human activity. There are an estimated 1 billion sheep in the world. The major sheep farming areas are located within the latitudes 35-55 degree north in Europe and Asia and between 30-45 degree south in South America, Australia and New Zealand. There are three major management systems for sheep production that exist in the world; extensive production for wool and meat, intensive dairy production and traditional pastoralism. While regarded by some experts as the healthy red meat option, the current world consumption of sheep meat stands at about 2.5 kg per person annually out of an annual meat consumption of 41.6 kg per person*1. In the European Union (EU), sheep meat production is predominantly based on extensive or semi-extensive grazing systems. The level of self-sufficiency in the EU for this sector stands at approximately 77% and holds great importance as a major source of livelihood for the small farmer and the landless in rural communities while also contributing to peri-urban and urban households by providing food, clothing, income and other socio-cultural wealth. Consequently, increasing sheep meat production without causing environmental damage, as well as improving its quality to make sheep meat more healthy, attractive and sustainable is essential to guaranteeing a decent level of performance for sheep producers.info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersio

Coffee capsule impacts and recovery techniques: A literature review

The recently developing coffee market has been characterized by profound changes caused by new solutions and technologies for coffee preparation. The polylaminate materials that compose most popular capsules make them a type of waste that is difficult to manage and recycle. This paper analyses the scientific references that deal with studying and improving the management processes of waste coffee capsules, as well as the studies that have analysed their environmental impact. Through a bibliographic review, some encouraging aspects emerged in the recovery of materials that can be adequately recycled (plastics and metals), as well as their possible use for the production of biogas and energy recovery. The need to manually separate the components that make up the capsule still represents one of the main challenges. Many efforts are still needed to favour the environmental sustainability of this waste from a strategic, technological and consumer empowerment point of view

The potential of certification for climate change mitigation in the agri-food sector : a case study of carbon neutral certified coffee from Costa Rica

Advancing economic, social and environmental sustainability in the agri-food sector is increasingly pursued by various actors along global value chains. One option to address sustainability concerns is to use voluntary sustainability standards and certifications/labels as market-based governance tools for self-regulation. Recently, the demand for particular climate standards and labels has increased, however little is known about their potential and challenges. Individual aspects of such voluntary sustainability certifications have been investigated, such as the effectiveness and impact of certifications or the purchasing decisions of consumers. However, a holistic and interdisciplinary approach by considering the complete value chain is rare and, thus challenges are overlooked and proposed solutions remain limited in scope. Moreover, LCA-based certifications addressing climate change mitigation present a new field of research. Against this background, this thesis aims to elicit the challenges and potential of sustainability certification in the agri-food sector. Taking the case of the worlds first carbon neutral certified coffee, the complete chain from standard development to consumer choices has been examined. This coffee is produced by Coopedota, a Costa Rican cooperative of small-scale farmers, and exported to a family-run specialty coffee roaster, Hochland Kaffee Hunzelmann GmbH, in Germany. In the case under consideration, a newly released and highly prescriptive standard for carbon neutrality, the Publicly Available Specification (PAS) 2060, has been adopted since 2011. PAS 2060 is the first independent international standard for carbon neutrality that provides a common definition and a recognized method that is based on a life cycle assessment (LCA). To achieve carbon neutrality, the respective greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are compiled, before continuous reduction activities are executed and the residual GHG emissions are offset by purchasing carbon credits. Costa Rica is relevant because it is actively pursuing carbon neutrality at the national level and the case of Coopedota serves as a pioneer in this field. In this thesis, an interdisciplinary case study approach is used to investigate in a holistic manner the challenges of carbon neutral certification in the agri-food sector. The study is guided by a conceptual framework developed from relevant literature on voluntary sustainability standards. The three specific objectives of the thesis are: (1) identify the success factors that made the carbon neutral certification in Coopedota possible and understanding the major challenges related to the standards implementation; (2) estimate the potential of on-farm carbon sequestration to compensate for the coffee carbon footprint and reduce carbon offsetting; and (3) estimate the willingness to pay for a carbon neutral label among German consumers of specialty coffee. This thesis contains three main chapters in addition to a general introduction and discussion. The first chapter addresses existing knowledge gaps regarding the role of social network dynamics, actor characteristics and linkages for successful pioneering in sustainable development, and investigates the challenges of implementing PAS 2060 by Coopedota. Qualitative research methods, such as in-depth interviews, participatory social network and process mapping as well as field observations were applied. The study found the prior achievements of the cooperative (e.g. compliance to ISO norms) and a fertile ground in terms of ongoing climate change mitigation policies, as important factors for the successful implementation of the standard. Further success factors were a strong central and visionary actor and a diverse network of supporting actors from science, business and politics. The main challenges in implementing the carbon neutral certification were the acquirement of reliable farm data and the advertisement and communication of a carbon neutral label. The second chapter focuses on the problem that biogenic carbon sequestration is rarely considered in LCA-based standards. To estimate the annual potential of biogenic carbon accounting in coffee-agroforestry systems (CAFS) a literature review was conducted and the carbon sequestration based on a carbon inventory at the coffee farms was modeled. The results of a 20-year simulation show that on average, CAFS at Coopedota can compensate the carbon footprint of coffee by approximately 160% annually. Simultaneously, a trade-off between carbon sequestration and productivity at reduced inputs appears, which should be minimized. In the third chapter a marginal willingness to pay (WTP) of 1.70 for a carbon neutral label was identified on a 250g package of specialty coffee by a discrete choice experiment among German consumers. Yet this marginal WTP was lower than the marginal WTP among the same consumers for direct trade claims or a Fair Trade certificate. Direct trade claims refer to the situation where direct trade relations exist; however, they are not certified and only declared by the retailer, as in the case of the family-run coffee roaster Hochland Kaffee Hunzelmann GmbH. Moreover, a positive synergistic effect was discovered for the combination of the carbon neutral label with direct trade claims. However, a public awareness on the contribution of agriculture to climate change is missing, as is the familiarity of the public with carbon concepts. Concluding, LCA-based certification for carbon neutrality can be a promising market-based tool for the agri-food sector to mitigate climate change. Such certification holds promise because it addresses recent demands for climate relevant information on agri-food products, while benefitting producers, the environment and consumers alike. Examples of these benefits include a potential increase in resource use efficiency, identification and minimization of GHG emission hot spots and trustworthiness among consumers due to the prescriptive nature of the standards. Additionally, the interdisciplinary case study approach enabled the identification of multi-faceted challenges and recommendations. One recommendation is that an agricultural perspective needs to be integrated into the standard by, for example, enabling the accounting of biogenic carbon sequestration. Such carbon accounting would prevent criticism of carbon offsetting and foster synergies between climate change mitigation, sustainability, and resilience. Particularly in the case of higher carbon prices, carbon accounting would be economically interesting but further research is needed to provide a robust dataset to enable it. Independent from a potential premium price for the label, access to capital and governmental support programs, especially for smallholders in less developed countries, can foster the implementation of greener technologies and allow stakeholders to benefit from increased efficiencies. The findings of this thesis indicate that coupling a carbon standard with existing sustainability standards, which use similar datasets, could ease the acquirement of reliable farm data on GHG emissions and reduce costs. Moreover, a coupling of standards could ensure additional sustainability practices, beyond the climate aspect, as already associated by consumers. This study also indicates that to establish markets for carbon neutral products, consumers first have to be aware of the extent of the agri-food sectors contribution to climate change and consumer responsibility in tackling this problem through their purchasing behavior. This thesis further illustrates the importance of innovators in advancing development goals. Taking action on climate change mitigation and shaping a more sustainable agri-food sector requires strong initiatives and visionaries on the ground, as exemplified by the pioneering case of Coopedota.Entlang globaler Wertschöpfungsketten im Agrar- und Lebensmittelsektor gibt es einen steigenden Bedarf an ökonomischen, sozialen und ökologischen Nachhaltigkeitsaspekten. Eine Möglichkeit, Nachhaltigkeitsprobleme anzugehen, bieten freiwillige Nachhaltigkeitsstandards und -zertifizierungen bzw. Labels, die als marktwirtschaftliche Instrumente zur Selbstregulierung genutzt werden. In den letzten Jahren hat die Nachfrage nach Standards und Zertifizierungen mit Klimabezug wesentlich zugenommen. Dennoch ist bisher wenig hinsichtlich ihrer Potentiale und Schwachstellen bekannt. Einzelne Aspekte solcher freiwilligen Nachhaltigkeitszertifizierungen wurden bereits häufiger untersucht, wie zum Beispiel deren Effektivität und Wirkung oder das Kaufverhalten der Konsumenten. Sehr selten wurden jedoch ganzheitliche und interdisziplinäre Ansätze, welche die gesamte Wertschöpfungskette im Blick haben, betrachtet. Dadurch wurden Herausforderungen übersehen und Lösungsvorschläge blieben in ihrer Nützlichkeit eingeschränkt. Gleichzeitig stellen Zertifizierungen, die sich mit der Eindämmung des Klimawandels beschäftigen, ein neues Forschungsgebiet dar. Daher ist es das Ziel dieser Arbeit, die Herausforderungen und Potentiale von Nachhaltigkeitszertifizierungen im Agrar- und Lebensmittelsektor zu analysieren. Am Beispiel des weltweit ersten klimaneutral zertifizierten Kaffees, wird - von der Normentwicklung bis zum Verbraucherverhalten - die gesamte globale Wertschöpfungskette betrachtet. Dieser Kaffee wird von der costa-ricanischen Kleinbauernkooperative Coopedota angebaut und verarbeitet. Die Kaffeebohnen werden unter anderem nach Deutschland exportiert und von der Familienrösterei für Qualitätskaffee, Hochland Kaffee Hunzelmann GmbH, geröstet und verkauft. Seit 2011 wird im vorliegenden Fall der neu entwickelte und in hohem Maße präskriptive Standard für Klimaneutralität, der Publicly Available Specification (PAS) 2060, angewandt. PAS 2060 ist der weltweit erste unabhängige Standard für Klimaneutralität, der über eine allgemeingültige Definition und eine anerkannte Methodik nach dem Prinzip der Ökobilanzierung verfügt. Das Konzept der Klimaneutralität bezieht sich auf den Zustand, in welchem ein Produkt, Prozess oder eine Organisation während einer bestimmten Zeit keine Nettoauswirkung auf den Klimawandel hat. Um Klimaneutralität zu erreichen, werden die jeweiligen Treibhausgasemissionen ermittelt, bevor fortlaufende, emissionsmindernde Tätigkeiten durchgeführt werden und die verbleibenden Treibhausgasemissionen durch den Erwerb von Kohlenstoffzertifikaten ausgeglichen werden. Dem Land Costa Rica kommt hier eine besondere Bedeutung zu, da es auf nationaler Ebene aktiv die Klimaneutralität anstrebt und die Kaffeekooperative Coopedota dabei eine Vorreiterrolle einnimmt. Diese Dissertation verfolgt einen interdisziplinären Ansatz in Form einer Fallstudie, um die Herausforderungen einer im Agrar- und Lebensmittelsektor angewandten Klimaneutralitätszertifizierung ganzheitlich zu untersuchen. Der Studie liegt ein eigens entwickelter konzeptioneller Rahmen zugrunde, der sich an relevanter Literatur zu freiwilligen Nachhaltigkeitsstandards orientiert. Die drei Ziele der Dissertation sind: (1) Erfolgsfaktoren zu identifizieren, welche die klimaneutrale Zertifizierung von Coopedota ermöglicht haben und die hauptsächlichen Herausforderungen in Bezug auf die Umsetzung des Standards zu verstehen. (2) Das Potential der Plantagen für Kohlenstofffixierung abzuschätzen, um den CO2-Fussabdruck des Kaffees auszugleichen. (3) Die Zahlungsbereitschaft für ein klimaneutrales Label unter deutschen Qualitätskaffeekunden zu ermitteln. Neben der Einleitung und Diskussion besteht die Dissertation aus drei Kapiteln. Das erste Kapitel zielt darauf ab, die bestehenden Wissenslücken in Bezug auf die Rolle sozialer Netzwerkdynamiken und die Rolle der Merkmale und Verbindungen von Akteuren für eine erfolgreiche, entwicklungsrelevante Pionierarbeit zu schließen. Des Weiteren werden die Herausforderungen in der Umsetzung von PAS 2060 durch die Kooperative untersucht. Dafür wurden qualitative Forschungsmethoden, wie Intensivinterviews, partizipative Kartierung von Prozessen und sozialen Netzwerken, sowie Feldbeobachtungen angewandt. Die Studie hat die bereits bestehenden Errungenschaften der Kooperative (z.B. ISO Zertifizierungen) und einen fruchtbaren Boden im Sinne von politischen Klimaschutzprogrammen als wichtige Erfolgsfaktoren identifiziert. Weitere Erfolgsfaktoren waren ein starker, zentraler und visionärer Handlungsträger der Kaffeekooperative, und ein vielseitiges Netzwerk von unterstützenden Akteuren aus Wissenschaft, Wirtschaft und Politik. Die zentralen Herausforderungen in der Durchführung einer klimaneutralen Zertifizierung bestanden in der Beschaffung zuverlässiger Betriebsdaten und der Vermarktung und Kommunikation eines Klimaneutralitätslabels. Das zweite Kapitel beschäftigt sich mit dem Problem, dass die biogene Fixierung von Kohlenstoff in Standards, die auf Ökobilanzierung basieren, kaum berücksichtigt wird. Um das jährliche Potential der biogenen Kohlenstofffixierung in Kaffee-Agroforst-Systemen zu erfassen, wurden Daten aus der Literatur und aus dem Feld ausgewertet. Auf dieser Grundlage konnte die Kohlenstofffixierung basierend auf einer Kohlenstofferfassung in den Kaffeeplantagen modelliert werden. Die Ergebnisse der Simulationen besagen, dass über einen Zeitraum von 20 Jahren durchschnittlich etwa 160% des jährlichen CO2-Fussabdrucks von Kaffee durch die Kaffee-Agroforst-Plantagen von Coopedota ausgeglichen werden könnten. Gleichzeitig stellt sich ein Zielkonflikt zwischen Kohlenstofffixierung und Ertragsfähigkeit bei verringerten Inputs heraus, den es zu minimieren gilt. Im dritten Kapitel wurde eine marginale Zahlungsbereitschaft deutscher Konsumenten von 1.70 für ein klimaneutrales Label auf einer 250g Packung Qualitätskaffee mit Hilfe eines Discrete-Choice-Experiments ermittelt. Diese lag jedoch unter der marginalen Zahlungsbereitschaft derselben Konsumenten für nicht-zertifizierte direkte Handelsbeziehungen oder ein Fair Trade Label. Zudem wurde in dem Fall einer Kombination des Klimaneutralitätslabels mit einer deklarierten direkten Handelsbeziehung ein positiver synergetischer Effekt auf die Zahlungsbereitschaft gefunden. Allerdings ließ sich auch feststellen, dass das Bewusstsein der Öffentlichkeit für den Beitrag der Landwirtschaft zum Klimawandel, ebenso wie eine Vertrautheit mit den zu Grunde liegenden Klimaschutzkonzepten, sehr gering ist. Aus der Dissertation ergibt sich, dass eine Klimaneutralitätszertifizierung, die auf Ökobilanzierung basiert, ein vielversprechendes, marktwirtschaftliches Werkzeug sein kann, um den Beitrag des Agrar- und Lebensmittelsektors zum Klimawandel zu reduzieren. Solch eine Zertifizierung ist zukunftsträchtig, da sie zum einen die jüngste Nachfrage nach klimarelevanten Informationen auf Produkten bedient und zum anderen, da Produzenten, die Umwelt und auch Konsumenten davon profitieren können. Beispiele dafür sind eine potentiell erhöhte Effizienz der Ressourcennutzung, die Identifizierung und Minimierung von Emissions-Hot-Spots und eine gesteigerte Glaubwürdigkeit gegenüber Konsumenten durch den präskriptiven Charakter des Standards. Dank des interdisziplinären Forschungsansatzes in Format einer Fallstudie konnten, zusätzlich zu den Potentialen, auch die vielschichtigen Herausforderungen einer Klimaneutralitätszertifizierung identifiziert werden, aus denen sich Empfehlungen ableiten lassen. Eine dieser Empfehlungen ist es, eine landwirtschaftliche Perspektive in den Standard zu integrieren, z.B. indem biogene Kohlenstofffixierung berücksichtigt wird. Durch die Berücksichtigung der Kohlenstoffspeicherung in den Plantagen würde die Kritik am Emissionshandel vermieden werden und Synergien zwischen der Eindämmung des Klimawandels, Nachhaltigkeit und Resilienz gefördert werden. Eine Anerkennung der biogenen Kohlenstoffspeicherung wäre, besonders im Fall von höheren internationalen Kohlenstoffpreisen, auch wirtschaftlich interessant. Gleichzeitig bedarf es hier weiterer Forschung, um robustere Datensätze zur Verfügung zu stellen. Unabhängig von potentiellen Premium-Preisen, bedürfen vor allem Kleinbauern in wirtschaftlich schwächeren Ländern einer verstärkten Zuwendung durch Regierungsprogramme, um den Zugang zu grünen Technologien zu gewährleisten und damit von der erhöhten Effizienz zu profitieren. Ein weiteres Ergebnis der Dissertation zeigt, dass die Kopplung eines Kohlestoffstandards mit bestehenden Nachhaltigkeitsstandards, die ähnliche Datensätze verwenden, die Erhebung verlässlicher Daten über Treibhausgasemissionen erleichtert und die Kosten senken kann. Darüber hinaus könnte eine Kopplung von Standards weitere Nachhaltigkeitspraktiken sicherstellen, die über den Klimaaspekt hinausgehen, wie es bereits von Verbrauchern assoziiert wird. Außerdem deutet die Studie auch darauf hin, dass zur Etablierung von Märkten für klimaneutrale Produkte Verbraucher sich zunächst darüber bewusstwerden müssen, dass der Beitrag des Agrar- und Lebensmittelsektors zum Klimawandel ein erhebliches Problem darstellt, wofür sie sich in ihrem Kaufverhalten verantwortlich zeigen können und sollten. Insgesamt lässt sich festhalten, dass Pionieren eine enorme Bedeutung innerhalb der Entwicklungsarbeit zukommt. Maßnahmen zur Eindämmung des Klimawandels und die gleichzeitige Ausgestaltung eines nachhaltigeren Agrar- und Lebensmittelsektors erfordern daher starke Initiativen und Visionäre, wie das Vorreiterprojekt Coopedota