A Simulated Microgravity Environment Causes a Sustained Defect in Epithelial Barrier Function.

Intestinal epithelial cell (IEC) junctions constitute a robust barrier to invasion by viruses, bacteria and exposure to ingested agents. Previous studies showed that microgravity compromises the human immune system and increases enteropathogen virulence. However, the effects of microgravity on epithelial barrier function are poorly understood. The aims of this study were to identify if simulated microgravity alters intestinal epithelial barrier function (permeability), and susceptibility to barrier-disrupting agents. IECs (HT-29.cl19a) were cultured on microcarrier beads in simulated microgravity using a rotating wall vessel (RWV) for 18 days prior to seeding on semipermeable supports to measure ion flux (transepithelial electrical resistance (TER)) and FITC-dextran (FD4) permeability over 14 days. RWV cells showed delayed apical junction localization of the tight junction proteins, occludin and ZO-1. The alcohol metabolite, acetaldehyde, significantly decreased TER and reduced junctional ZO-1 localization, while increasing FD4 permeability in RWV cells compared with static, motion and flask control cells. In conclusion, simulated microgravity induced an underlying and sustained susceptibility to epithelial barrier disruption upon removal from the microgravity environment. This has implications for gastrointestinal homeostasis of astronauts in space, as well as their capability to withstand the effects of agents that compromise intestinal epithelial barrier function following return to Earth

Autophagy in Microglia and Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most common neurodegenerative disease, characterized by amyloid-beta plaques, neurofibrillary tangles and neuroinflammation. Autophagy has been associated with several neurodegenerative diseases. Recently, autophagy has been linked to the regulation of the inflammatory response in macrophages. My thesis investigates how an impairment of autophagy influences the inflammatory response of microglia. We used Beclin1 heterozygous (Becn1+/-) mice as a model of impaired autophagy. Beclin1 plays a role in the initiation of autophagy and was shown to be decreased in microglia isolated from AD patients compared to healthy controls. In vitro, acutely stimulated microglia from neonatal Becn1+/- mice exhibited increased expression of the proinflammatory cytokines IL-1beta and IL-18 compared to wild type microglia. Both IL-1beta and IL-18 are processed by the NLRP3 inflammasome pathway. The investigation of this pathway showed an elevated number of cells with inflammasomes and increased levels of the inflammasome components NLRP3 and cleaved Caspase1 in Becn1+/- microglia. Super resolution microscopy revealed a very close association of NLRP3 aggregates and LC3-positive autophagosomes. Interestingly, despite suggestions that the murine CALCOCO2 does not function as an autophagic adaptor, we discovered CALCOCO2 colocalised with NLRP3 and that its downregulation by siRNA knockdown increased IL-1beta release. These data support the notion that selective autophagy can impact microglia activation by modulating IL-1beta and IL-18 production via NLRP3 degradation. These in vitro data present a mechanism how impaired autophagy could contribute to neuroinflammation in AD. In vivo analysis of Becn1+/-.APPPS1 mice also demonstrated enhanced IL-1beta levels, but no differences in amyloid beta pathology, nor phagocytic capacity. The constitutive heterozygosity of Beclin1 might be responsible for the milder effects in vivo. Therefore, we performed studies utilizing more sophisticated models targeting immune cells specifically. The first model, Aldh1l1-iCre.Becn1-flox, targets Becn1 deletion specifically in astrocytes in the central nervous system after injection with the drug tamoxifen. Peripherally, Aldh1l1 is also expressed by hepatocytes. The Aldh1l1-iCre.Becn1-flox mice suffered from peripheral damage in the liver 10 days after tamoxifen injection, and can therefore not be used in further studies. The second model, Cx3Cr1-iCre.Becn1-flox, targets Becn1 deletion specifically in microglia in the central nervous system, and will be crossed to the APPPS1 mice to create a tool to study the role of Beclin1 in microglia in neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration. This new tool and the data generated in this work will support a new direction of research, to unravel the therapeutic potential of autophagy-dependent inflammation in neurodegenerative diseases.Die Alzheimer-Krankheit (AD) ist die häufigste neurodegenerative Erkrankung, die durch Amyloid-Beta-Plaques, neurofibrilläre Verwicklungen und Neuroinflammation gekennzeichnet ist. Autophagie wurde mit mehreren neurodegenerativen Erkrankungen in Verbindung gebracht. Vor Kurzem wurde Autophagie mit der Regulierung der Entzündungsreaktion in Makrophagen in Verbindung gebracht. Meine Dissertation untersucht, wie eine Beeinträchtigung der Autophagie die Entzündungsreaktion von Mikroglia beeinflusst. Wir haben Beclin1-heterozygote (Becn1+/-) Mäuse als Modell für eingeschränkte Autophagie verwendet. Beclin1 spielt eine Rolle bei der Initiierung der Autophagie und es wurde gezeigt, dass es bei aus AD-Patienten isolierten Mikrogliazellen im Vergleich zu gesunden Kontrollen abnimmt. Akut stimulierte Mikroglia aus neonatalen Becn1+/– Mäusen zeigten in vitro eine erhöhte Expression der proinflammatorischen Zytokine IL-1beta und IL-18 im Vergleich zu Wildtyp-Mikroglia. Sowohl IL-1beta als auch IL-18 werden vom NLRP3-Inflammasom-Weg verarbeitet. Die Untersuchung dieses Weges zeigte eine erhöhte Anzahl von Zellen mit Inflammasomen und erhöhte Spiegel der Inflammasomenkomponenten NLRP3 und gespaltenen Caspase1 in Becn1+/– Mikroglia. Super-Resolution-Mikroskopie zeigte eine sehr enge Lokalisation von NLRP3-Aggregaten und LC3-positiven Autophagosomen. Interessanterweise haben wir trotz der Kritik, dass das murine CALCOCO2 nicht als autophagischer Adapter fungiert, entdeckt, dass CALCOCO2 mit NLRP3 kolokalisiert und dass die Herunterregulierung durch siRNA die IL-1beta-Freisetzung erhöhte. Diese Daten stützen die Ansicht, dass selektive Autophagie die Mikroglia-Aktivierung beeinflussen kann, indem die IL-1beta- und IL-18-Produktion durch NLRP3-Abbau moduliert wird. Diese in vitro Daten stellen einen Mechanismus dar, wie eine gestörte Autophagie zur Neuroinflammation bei AD beitragen kann. In vivo Analysen von Becn1+/–.APPPS1 Mäusen zeigten ebenfalls erhöhte IL-1beta-Spiegel, jedoch keine Unterschiede in der Amyloid-Beta-Pathologie und auch keine in Bezug auf die Phagozytosekapazität. Die konstitutive Heterozygotie von Beclin1 könnte für die geringen Auswirkungen in vivo verantwortlich sein. Daher etablierten zwei neue Modelle, die speziell auf Immunzellen abzielten. Das erste Modell, Aldh1l1-iCre.Becn1-Flox, zielt auf die Becn1-Deletion spezifisch in Astrozyten im zentralen Nervensystem nach Injektion des Arzneimittels Tamoxifen ab. In der Peripherie wird Aldh1l1 auch von Hepatozyten exprimiert. Die Aldh1l1-iCre.Becn1-Flox Mäuse erlitten 10 Tage nach Tamoxifen-Injektion eine periphere Schädigung der Leber und können daher nicht in weiteren Studien verwendet werden. Das zweite Modell, Cx3Cr1-iCre.Becn1-flox, zielt auf die Becn1-Deletion speziell in Mikroglia im Zentralnervensystem ab und wird mit den APPPS1-Mäusen gekreuzt, um ein Modell für die Untersuchung der Rolle von Beclin1 in Mikroglia bei Neuroinflammation und Neurodegeneration darzustellen. Dieses neue Mausmodell und die in dieser Arbeit generierten Daten werden eine neue Richtung der Forschung unterstützen, um das therapeutische Potenzial autophagieabhängiger Entzündungen bei neurodegenerativen Erkrankungen zu ermitteln

Dysregulation of Na+/K+ ATPase by amyloid in APP+PS1 transgenic mice

BACKGROUND: The pathology of Alzheimer's disease (AD) is comprised of extracellular amyloid plaques, intracellular tau tangles, dystrophic neurites and neurodegeneration. The mechanisms by which these various pathological features arise are under intense investigation. Here, expanding upon pilot gene expression studies, we have further analyzed the relationship between Na+/K+ ATPase and amyloid using APP+PS1 transgenic mice, a model that develops amyloid plaques and memory deficits in the absence of tangle formation and neuronal or synaptic loss. RESULTS: We report that in addition to decreased mRNA expression, there was decreased overall Na+/K+ ATPase enzyme activity in the amyloid-containing hippocampi of the APP+PS1 mice (although not in the amyloid-free cerebellum). In addition, dual immunolabeling revealed an absence of Na+/K+ ATPase staining in a zone surrounding congophilic plaques that was occupied by dystrophic neurites. We also demonstrate that cerebral Na+/K+ ATPase activity can be directly inhibited by high concentrations of soluble Aβ. CONCLUSIONS: The data suggest that the reductions in Na+/K+ ATPase activity in Alzheimer tissue may not be purely secondary to neuronal loss, but may results from direct effects of amyloid on this enzyme. This disruption of ion homeostasis and osmotic balance may interfere with normal electrotonic properties of dendrites, blocking intraneuronal signal processing, and contribute to neuritic dystrophia. These results suggest that therapies aimed at enhancing Na+/K+ ATPase activity in AD may improve symptoms and/or delay disease progression

How to study basement membrane stiffness as a biophysical trigger in prostate cancer and other age-related pathologies or metabolic diseases

Here we describe a protocol that can be used to study the biophysical microenvironment related to increased thickness and stiffness of the basement membrane (BM) during age-related pathologies and metabolic disorders (e.g. cancer, diabetes, microvascular disease, retinopathy, nephropathy and neuropathy). The premise of the model is non-enzymatic crosslinking of reconstituted BM (rBM) matrix by treatment with glycolaldehyde (GLA) to promote advanced glycation endproduct (AGE) generation via the Maillard reaction. Examples of laboratory techniques that can be used to confirm AGE generation, non-enzymatic crosslinking and increased stiffness in GLA treated rBM are outlined. These include preparation of native rBM (treated with phosphate-buffered saline, PBS) and stiff rBM (treated with GLA) for determination of: its AGE content by photometric analysis and immunofluorescent microscopy, its non-enzymatic crosslinking by ((sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis)) (SDS PAGE) as well as confocal microscopy, and its increased stiffness using rheometry. The procedure described here can be used to increase the rigidity (elastic moduli, E) of rBM up to 3.2-fold, consistent with measurements made in healthy versus diseased human prostate tissue. To recreate the biophysical microenvironment associated with the aging and diseased prostate gland three prostate cell types were introduced on to native rBM and stiff rBM: RWPE-1, prostate epithelial cells (PECs) derived from a normal prostate gland; BPH-1, PECs derived from a prostate gland affected by benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH); and PC3, metastatic cells derived from a secondary bone tumor originating from prostate cancer. Multiple parameters can be measured, including the size, shape and invasive characteristics of the 3D glandular acini formed by RWPE-1 and BPH-1 on native versus stiff rBM, and average cell length, migratory velocity and persistence of cell movement of 3D spheroids formed by PC3 cells under the same conditions. Cell signaling pathways and the subcellular localization of proteins can also be assessed

The Roles of Membrane Rafts in CD32A-Mediated Phagocytosis

Membrane rafts are highly dynamic heterogeneous sterol- and sphingolipid-rich micro-domains on cell surfaces. They are generally believed to provide residency for cell surface molecules (e.g., adhesion and signaling molecules) and scaffolding to facilitate the functions of these molecules such as membrane trafficking, receptor transport, cell signaling, and endocytosis.
The governing, or overall hypothesis, for this project is that membrane rafts provide residency for Fc[gamma]RIIA (CD32A) on K562 cells, and that by doing so they provide a platform from which Fc[gamma]RIIA initiate or carry out their functions, which include migration, signaling, phagocytic synapse formation, and internalization of IgG opsonized targets.
Using immuno-fluorescent laser scanning confocal microscopy and reflection interference microscopy (RIM), we studied the spatial and temporal distributions of membrane rafts and surface receptors, signaling molecules, and cell organelles during the formation of phagocytic contact areas. K562 cells, which naturally express CD32A, a cell surface receptor for the Fc portion of Immuno-globulin G(IgG), was chosen as a model for neutrophils. An opsonized target was modeled using a glass supported lipid bilayer reconstituted with IgG. CD32A was found to cluster and co-localize with membrane rafts. Placing the K562 cells on the lipid bilayer triggered a process of contact area formation that includes binding between receptors and ligands, their recruitment to the contact area, a concurrent membrane raft movement to and concentration in the contact area, and transport of CD32A, IgG, and membrane rafts to the Golgi complex. Characterization of these processes was performed using agents known to disrupt detergent resistant membranes (DRMs), dissolve actin microfilaments, and inhibit myosin motor activity, which abolished the CD32A clusters and prevented the contact area formation. 
The relevance to phagocytosis of contact area formation between K562 cells and lipid bilayers was demonstrated using micro-beads coated with a lipid bilayer reconstituted with IgG as the opsonized target instead of the glass supported planar lipid bilayer. Disruption of membrane rafts, salvation of the actin cytoskeleton, and inhibition of myosin II activity were found to inhibit phagocytosis.
These data suggest membrane rafts play several important roles in CD32A mediated phagocytosis including pre-clustering CD32A, transport of CD32A to the phagocytic cup, and transport of the opsonized target towards the Golgi complex. Here we have provided evidence that membrane rafts serve as platforms which are used to cluster CD32A and transport CD32A along the actin cytoskeleton to the site of phagocytic synapse formation thus allowing for the quick assembly of a phagocytic synapse.
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Tyrosine-Based Signals Regulate the Assembly of Daple⋅PARD3 Complex at Cell-Cell Junctions.

Polarized distribution of organelles and molecules inside a cell is vital for a range of cellular processes and its loss is frequently encountered in disease. Polarization during planar cell migration is a special condition in which cellular orientation is triggered by cell-cell contact. We demonstrate that the protein Daple (CCDC88C) is a component of cell junctions in epithelial cells which serves like a cellular "compass" for establishing and maintaining contact-triggered planar polarity. Furthermore, these processes may be mediated through interaction with the polarity regulator PARD3. This interaction, mediated by Daple's PDZ-binding motif (PBM) and the third PDZ domain of PARD3, is fine-tuned by tyrosine phosphorylation on Daple's PBM by receptor and non-receptor tyrosine kinases, such as Src. Hypophosphorylation strengthens the interaction, whereas hyperphosphorylation disrupts it, thereby revealing an unexpected role of Daple as a platform for signal integration and gradient sensing for tyrosine-based signals within the planar cell polarity pathway

Tomato spotted wilt virus glycoproteins induce the formation of endoplasmic reticulum- and Golgi-derived pleomorphic membrane structures in plant cells

Tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV) particles are spherical and enveloped, an uncommon feature among plant infecting viruses. Previous studies have shown that virus particle formation involves the enwrapment of ribonucleoproteins with viral glycoprotein containing Golgi stacks. In this study, the localization and behaviour of the viral glycoproteins Gn and Gc were analysed, upon transient expression in plant protoplasts. When separately expressed, Gc was solely observed in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), whereas Gn was found both within the ER and Golgi membranes. Upon co-expression, both glycoproteins were found at ER-export sites and ultimately at the Golgi complex, confirming the ability of Gn to rescue Gc from the ER, possibly due to heterodimerization. Interestingly, both Gc and Gn were shown to induce the deformation of ER and Golgi membranes, respectively, also observed upon co-expression of the two glycoproteins. The behaviour of both glycoproteins within the plant cell and the phenomenon of membrane deformation are discussed in light of the natural process of viral infectio

Isolation of poliovirus 2C mutants defective in viral RNA synthesis

Two poliovirus mutants were isolated that contain an oligonucleotide linker insertion in the 2C-coding region of the viral genome. One, 2C-31, has a strongly temperature-sensitive phenotype and the other, 2C-32, forms small plaques on HeLa cell monolayers at all temperatures. Both mutants have a severe temperature-sensitive defect in viral RNA synthesis but little effect on the types of viral protein that are made. Temperature shift experiments showed that the 2C function is continuously required for viral RNA synthesis to proceed. The 2C mutants could be complemented in trans by mutants with mutations in other viral proteins. Protein 2C is also the locus of the guanidine resistance and dependence mutants, a drug whose action also affects viral RNA synthesis. Thus, protein 2C is one that is needed continually for viral RNA synthesis and, at least with these temperature-sensitive alleles, can be provided in trans

Functional and Biogenetical Heterogeneity of the Inner Membrane of Rat-Liver Mitochondria

Rat liver mitochondria were fragmented by a combined technique of swelling, shrinking, and sonication. Fragments of inner membrane were separated by density gradient centrifugation. They differed in several respects: electronmicroscopic appearance, phospholipid and cytochrome contents, electrophoretic behaviour of proteins and enzymatic activities. Three types of inner membrane fractions were isolated. The first type is characterized by a high activity of metal chelatase, low activities of succinate-cytochrome c reductase and of glycerolphosphate dehydrogenase, as well as by a high phospholipid content and low contents of cytochromes aa3 and b. The second type displays maximal activities of glycerolphosphate dehydrogenase and metal chelatase, but contains relatively little cytochromes and has low succinate-cytochrome c reductase activity. The third type exhibits highest succinate-cytochrome c reductase activity, a high metal chelatase activity and highest cytochrome contents. However, this fraction was low in both glycerolphosphate dehydrogenase activity and phospholipid content. This fraction was also richest in the following enzyme activities: cytochrome oxidase, oligomycin-sensitive ATPase, proline oxidase, 3-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase and rotenone-sensitive NADH-cytochrome c reductase. Amino acid incorporation in vitro and in vivo in the presence of cycloheximide occurs predominantly into inner membrane fractions from the second type. These data suggest that the inner membrane is composed of differently organized parts, and that polypeptides synthesized by mitochondrial ribosomes are integrated into specific parts of the inner membrane