Bioenergy and climate change mitigation: an assessment

Acknowledgements The authors are indebted to Julia Römer for assisting with editing several hundred references. Helmut Haberl gratefully acknowledges funding by the Austrian Academy of Sciences (Global Change Programme), the Austrian Ministry of Science and Research (BMWF, proVision programme) as well as by the EU-FP7 project VOLANTE. Carmenza Robledo-Abad received financial support from the Swiss State Secretariat for Economic Affairs.Peer reviewedPostprin

Pilot application of PalmGHG, the RSPO greenhouse gas calculator for oil palm products

International audienceThe Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO) is a non-profit association promoting sustainable palm oil through a voluntary certification scheme. Two successive science-based working groups on greenhouse gas (GHG) were active in RSPO from 2009 to 2011, with the aim of identifying ways of achieving meaningful and verifiable reductions of GHG emissions. One of the outputs of the second group is PalmGHG, a GHG calculator using the life cycle assessment ap-proach to quantify major sources of emissions and sequestration for individual palm oil mills and their supply base. A pilot study was carried out in 2011 with nine RSPO member companies that gave an average of 1.67 t CO2e/t crude palm oil (CPO), with a range of -0.02 to +8.32t CO2e/t CPO. Previous land use and the area of peat soil used were the main causes of the variation. Further modifications to PalmGHG continue to be made in order to make the tool more flexible and comprehensive, to refine default values, and to render it more user-friendly

Node-Centric Detection of Overlapping Communities in Social Networks

We present NECTAR, a community detection algorithm that generalizes Louvain method's local search heuristic for overlapping community structures. NECTAR chooses dynamically which objective function to optimize based on the network on which it is invoked. Our experimental evaluation on both synthetic benchmark graphs and real-world networks, based on ground-truth communities, shows that NECTAR provides excellent results as compared with state of the art community detection algorithms

Biofuel scenarios in a water perspective: the global blue and green water footprint of road transport in 2030

The trend towards substitution of conventional transport fuels by biofuels requires additional water. The EU aims In the last two centuries, fossil fuels have been our major source of energy. However, issues concerning energy security and the quality of the environment have given an impulse to the development of alternative, renewable fuels. Particularly the transport sector is expected to steadily switch from fossil fuels to a larger fraction of biofuels - liquid transport fuels derived from biomass. Many governments believe that biofuels can replace substantial volumes of crude oil and that they will play a key role in diversifying the sources of energy supply in the coming decades. The growth of biomass requires water, a scarce resource. The link between water resources and (future) biofuel consumption, however, has not been analyzed in great detail yet. Existing scenarios on the use of water resources usually only consider the changes in food and livestock production, industry and domestic activity. The aim of this research is to assess the change in water use related to the expected increase in the use of biofuels for road transport in 2030, and subsequently evaluate the contribution to potential water scarcity. The study builds on earlier research on the relation between energy and water and uses the water footprint (WF) methodology to investigate the change in water demand related to a transition to biofuels in road transport. Information about this transition in each country is based on a compilation of different energy scenarios. The study distinguishes between two different bio-energy carriers, bio-ethanol and biodiesel, and assesses the ratio of fuel produced from selected first-generation energy crops per country. For ethanol these crops are sugar cane, sugar beet, sweet sorghum, wheat and maize. For biodiesel they are soybean, rapeseed, jatropha, and oil palm

Chapter 11 - Agriculture, forestry and other land use (AFOLU)

Agriculture, Forestry, and Other Land Use (AFOLU) plays a central role for food security and sustainable development. Plants take up carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere and nitrogen (N) from the soil when they grow, re-distributing it among different pools, including above and below-ground living biomass, dead residues, and soil organic matter. The CO2 and other non-CO2 greenhouse gases (GHG), largely methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O), are in turn released to the atmosphere by plant respiration, by decomposition of dead plant biomass and soil organic matter, and by combustion. Anthropogenic land-use activities (e.g., management of croplands, forests, grasslands, wetlands), and changes in land use / cover (e.g., conversion of forest lands and grasslands to cropland and pasture, afforestation) cause changes superimposed on these natural fluxes. AFOLU activities lead to both sources of CO2 (e.g., deforestation, peatland drainage) and sinks of CO2 (e.g., afforestation, management for soil carbon sequestration), and to non-CO2 emissions primarily from agriculture (e.g., CH4 from livestock and rice cultivation, N2O from manure storage and agricultural soils and biomass burning. The main mitigation options within AFOLU involve one or more of three strategies: reduction / prevention of emissions to the atmosphere by conserving existing carbon pools in soils or vegetation that would otherwise be lost or by reducing emissions of CH4 and N2O; sequestration - enhancing the uptake of carbon in terrestrial reservoirs, and thereby removing CO2 from the atmosphere; and reducing CO2 emissions by substitution of biological products for fossil fuels or energy-intensive products. Demand-side options (e.g., by lifestyle changes, reducing losses and wastes of food, changes in human diet, changes in wood consumption), though known to be difficult to implement, may also play a role. Land is the critical resource for the AFOLU sector and it provides food and fodder to feed the Earth's population of ~7 billion, and fibre and fuel for a variety of purposes. It provides livelihoods for billions of people worldwide. It is finite and provides a multitude of goods and ecosystem services that are fundamental to human well-being. Human economies and quality of life are directly dependent on the services and the resources provided by land. Figure 11.1 shows the many provisioning, regulating, cultural and supporting services provided by land, of which climate regulation is just one. Implementing mitigation options in the AFOLU sector may potentially affect other services provided by land in positive or negative ways. In the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Second Assessment Report (SAR) and in the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report (AR4), agricultural and forestry mitigation were dealt with in separate chapters. In the IPCC Third Assessment Report (TAR), there were no separate sectoral chapters on either agriculture or forestry. In the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report (AR5), for the first time, the vast majority of the terrestrial land surface, comprising agriculture, forestry and other land use (AFOLU), is considered together in a single chapter, though settlements (which are important, with urban areas forecasted to triple in size from 2000 global extent by 2030), are dealt with in Chapter 12. This approach ensures that all land-based mitigation options can be considered together; it minimizes the risk of double counting or inconsistent treatment (e.g., different assumptions about available land) between different land categories, and allows the consideration of systemic feedbacks between mitigation options related to the land surface. Considering AFOLU in a single chapter allows phenomena common across land-use types, such as competition for land and water, co-benefits, adverse side-effects and interactions between mitigation and adaptation to be considered consistently. The complex nature of land presents a unique range of barriers and opportunities, and policies to promote mitigation in the AFOLU sector need to take account of this complexity. In this chapter, we consider the competing uses of land for mitigation and for providing other services. Unlike the chapters on agriculture and forestry in AR4, impacts of sourcing bioenergy from the AFOLU sector are considered explicitly in a dedicated appendix. Also new to this assessment is the explicit consideration of food / dietary demand-side options for GHG mitigation in the AFOLU sector, and some consideration of freshwater fisheries and aquaculture, which may compete with the agriculture and forestry sectors, mainly through their requirements for land and / or water, and indirectly, by providing fish and other products to the same markets as animal husbandry. This chapter deals with AFOLU in an integrated way with respect to the underlying scenario projections of population growth, economic growth, dietary change, land-use change (LUC), and cost of mitigation. We draw evidence from both "bottom-up" studies that estimate mitigation potentials at small scales or for individual options or technologies and then scale up, and multi-sectoral "top-down" studies that consider AFOLU as just one component of a total multi-sector system response. In this chapter, we provide updates on emissions trends and changes in drivers and pressures in the AFOLU sector, describe the practices available in the AFOLU sector, and provide refined estimates of mitigation costs and potentials for the AFOLU sector, by synthesising studies that have become available since AR4. We conclude the chapter by identifying gaps in knowledge and data, providing a selection of Frequently Asked Questions, and presenting an Appendix on bioenergy to update the IPCC Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation (SRREN)

Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use (AFOLU)

Agriculture, Forestry, and Other Land Use (AFOLU) is unique among the sectors considered in this volume, since the mitigation potential is derived from both an enhancement of removals of greenhouse gases (GHG), as well as reduction of emissions through management of land and livestock (robust evidence; high agreement). The land provides food that feeds the Earth’s human population of ca. 7 billion, fibre for a variety of purposes, livelihoods for billions of people worldwide, and is a critical resource for sustainable development in many regions. Agriculture is frequently central to the livelihoods of many social groups, especially in developing countries where it often accounts for a significant share of production. In addition to food and fibre, the land provides a multitude of ecosystem services; climate change mitigation is just one of many that are vital to human well-being (robust evidence; high agreement). Mitigation options in the AFOLU sector, therefore, need to be assessed, as far as possible, for their potential impact on all other services provided by land. [Section 11.1

Ausweitung des Sojaanbaus in Deutschland durch züchterische Anpassung sowie pflanzenbauliche und verarbeitungstechnische Optimierung

Die Arbeiten im Sojaforschungsprojekt waren erfolgreich und konnten wichtige Impulse für die Ausweitung des Sojaanbaus in Deutschland geben. So sind die entwickelten Stämme und Kreuzungsnachkommen eine Basis für den Aufbau einer eigenständigen deutschen Sojazüchtung. Die Sorten Korus und Protibus erwiesen sich als besonders geeignet für die Tofuherstellung. Die im Projekt entwickelte Labortofurei ist ein Züchtungsinstrument zur Identifikation vielversprechender Genotypen, mit dem auch die weitere Entwicklung frühreifer Tofusojasorten unterstützt werden kann. In Gefäßversuchen konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Reaktion auf Kühlestress während der Hülsenansatzphase zwischen den Sorten variiert und es tolerante, kompensierende und sensitive Sorten gibt. Die praktische Selektion auf Kältetoleranz war erfolgreich und für die Selektion auf Unkrauttoleranz konnte ein System etabliert werden. Bis auf das Präparat Radicin können die vorhandenen kommerziellen Bradyrhizobienpräparate für den Praxiseinsatz empfohlen werden. Die Hypothese, dass die Selektion des Symbiosepartners auf Kühletoleranz lohnenswert ist, wurde bestätigt. Bei der Sortenprüfung in ganz Deutschland zeigte sich, dass die Anbauwürdigkeit von Soja gut und nur an wenigen der geprüften Standorte nicht gegeben war. Die 00-Sorte ES-Mentor lieferte insgesamt die höchsten Relativerträge sowie den höchsten Rohproteinertrag, bei den 000-Sorten schnitt Sultana besonders gut ab. Eine Variation der Saatzeit sowie verschiedene Verfrühungstechniken erweisen sich nicht als ertragsrelevant. Beim Erfolg der Unkrautregulierung mit Torsionshacke, Fingerhacke und Flachhäufler gab es keine Unterschiede. Im Dammanbau lassen sich Sojabohnen mit gutem Unkrautregulierungserfolg kultivieren. Bei der Sojaaufbereitung sollte eine unnötig hohe Erhitzung der Bohnen bei der Aufbereitung vermieden werden, da durch die Erhitzung neben der Trypsininhibitoraktivität auch Eiweißverdaulichkeit reduziert werden. Mit ausschließlich indirekter, länger einwirkender, trockener Wärme (z. B. Biogasabwärme), ist es schwierig, gute Aufbereitungsqualitäten zu erzielen. Der Wissenstransfer mit Feldtagen und Website www.sojainfo.de war wichtig und erfolgreich zur Steigerung des Interesses am heimischen Sojaanbau

Verbreitung und effektive Kontrolle von Acker-Fuchsschwanz (Alopecurus myosuroides) im Hinblick auf die Resistenzentwicklung – Auswertung der Ringversuche der Bundesländer Brandenburg, Hessen, Sachsen, Sachsen-Anhalt und Thüringen von 2000 bis 2014

Der Acker-Fuchsschwanz (Alopecurus myosuroides) nimmt regional sowohl in der Verbreitung als auch in der Befallsstärke in den Bundesländern Brandenburg, Hessen, Sachsen-Anhalt, Sachsen und Thüringen zu. In den letzten Jahren mehren sich die Resistenznachweise bei Acker-Fuchsschwanz gegenüber ALS-Hemmern und ACCase-Hemmern in einigen ostdeutschen Bundesländern und Hessen.Es wurde ermittelt, mit welchen dikotylen Unkräutern der Acker-Fuchsschwanz am häufigsten vergesellschaftet vorkommt. Im gemeinsamen Versuchsprogramm von 2000 bis 2014 erfolgte die Prüfung der Leistungsfähigkeit verschiedener Herbizidbehandlungen. Insgesamt konnten 191 Versuche in die Auswertung einbezogen werden. Anhand der HRAC-Einstufung wurden Herbizid-Kombinationen gebildet, die entsprechend einer nachgewiesenen Resistenzsituation des Standortes zur Problemlösung beitragen können. Es wurden unterschiedliche Behandlungstermine sowie Einmal- und Mehrfachbehandlungen von Herbiziden und Tankmischungen getestet. Es erfolgte die Ermittlung des Einflusses der Besatzdichte von Acker-Fuchsschwanz auf die Wirksamkeit.Die im Herbst einmal applizierten bodenwirksamen Herbizide erzielten keine ausreichenden Wirkungsgrade gegenüber Acker-Fuchsschwanz (besonders bei stärkerem Besatz > 500 Scheinähren/m²). Eine sichere Bekämpfung ist durch die Kombination eines Bodenherbizides mit einem blattaktiven Partner möglich. Im Vergleich der Behandlungsverfahren waren Spritzfolgen wirkungssicherer als Einmalbehandlungen. Um einer weiteren Ausbreitung der Resistenzen entgegenzuwirken sind Wirkstoffgruppenwechsel und die Erzielung hoher Wirkungsgrade der Herbizidvarianten neben den ackerbaulichen Maßnahmen wie Aussaattermin, Einsatz des Pfluges und Fruchtfolge von hoher Priorität. Spread and control of blackgrass (Alopecurus myosuroides) according to an increasing occurrence of resistance - Evaluation of field trials in the federal states Brandenburg, Hessen, Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt and Thuringia in the years 2000 - 2014An increasing occurrence of blackgrass (Alopecurus myosuroides) with high densities has been reported for Brandenburg, Hessen, Saxony-Anhalt, Saxony and Thuringia. In recent years, an increasing resistance to blackgrass especially to ALS inhibitors and partially to ACCase inhibitors has been reported for some eastern federal states and Hessen, too.It was determined to what extent dicotyledonous weeds are associated with blackgrass. The efficacy of different herbicide applications was tested in field trials between 2000 and 2014. A total of 191 trials have been included in the analysis of blackgrass. Using the HRAC-classification of herbicides tested, combinations of herbicides were used which might contribute to solve problems specifically linked to the detected resistance situation of the site. The study aimed to identify the right timing of the herbicide applications as well as applications as single or serial treatments and the use of herbicide at reduced doses according to the intensity of blackgrass.In autumn, single applications of soil active herbicides were not effective enough, especially at a high density of more than 500 heads of blackgrass per m2. The mixtures of soil active herbicides with leave active herbicides applied in autumn achieved very good control. The herbicide sequences were more effective than single applications. In order to counteract further spread of herbicide resistance, the right choice of the mode of action and highly efficacious herbicide treatments are the methods of choice, of course in addition to nonchemical controlling measures such as delayed autumn drilling, ploughing and crop rotation

Determining the context and scale at which functional traits increase Nicotiana attenuata yields

At least 10,000 years ago, humans began domesticating crop plants into consistent, high-yielding food sources. Plants continue to provide 90% of human food energy intake worldwide. However, as human populations increase and arable land becomes scarce or unproductive due to climate instability, plant food sources may no longer be able to sustain human nutritional requirements. Plant populations must become more productive. This dissertation uses an ecological model plant, Nicotiana attenuata, to evaluate the contexts and scales at which plant populations can increase their productivity. I explore the current uses and future potentials of three functional traits that can be selected for, or genetically modified, in crop cultivars to improve agricultural yields. First, I test the efficacy of current agricultural pest-resistance technology in increasing yield. The pest-resistance technology (Cry1Ac expression), conferred through genetic modification to N. attenuata, did not increase yield in comparison to endogenously defended, or even undefended N. attenuata lines. Due to the scarcity of Cry1Ac-targeted insects in this field season, plants with more flexible use of their direct defenses were able to be more productive, demonstrating the benefit of naturally evolved defenses in the face of yearly-inconsistent pests. Resource-use traits such as plant water-use or association with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal (AM) networks that facilitate nutrient access are as important to agricultural productivity as pest-resistance. Current screenings for water-use traits among agricultural varieties are insufficient: they do not account for varying rates of soil water consumption or plant development in applying drought treatments, and therefore, do not lead to reproducible results in the field. We use variance decomposition to quantify the extent to which these factors, when left uncontrolled, can significantly change observed results. I then apply the ecologically established biodiversity-productivity phenomenon to attempt to increase population yields by varying the percentage of plants with a low water-use efficiency trait among control plants in N. attenuata field populations. Low percentages of this trait caused overyielding. Using both novel and developed methodologies, I advance the understanding of the mechanisms behind this effect by identifying one of its genetic bases, and narrowing the spatial scale and plant tissue at which it occurs. Finally, we develop a method for screening agricultural cultivars for association with AM fungal networks by using a high-throughput leaf molecular marker rather than traditional microscopy methods, which are laborious and destructive. This work emphasizes the benefits of methodological development, which can both improve screenings for agriculturally-relevant functional traits and allow for application of ecologically-informed alternatives to increase population yield (e.g. intraspecific diversity).Bereits vor mindestens 10 000 Jahren begannen Menschen Pflanzen zu domestizieren und gewannen damit einheitliche und ertragreiche Nahrungsquellen. Auch heute nehmen Menschen 90% ihrer Nahrungsenergie über Pflanzen auf. Allerdings könnten in Zukunft Pflanzen nicht ausreichen, um die menschlichen Nahrungsbedürfnisse zu decken. Die Weltbevölkerung wächst und Klimainstabilität führt zu schrumpfenden Agrarflächen oder sinkenden Erträgen. Pflanzen müssen dementsprechend ertragreicher werden. In dieser Dissertation wird die Modellpflanze Nicotiana attenuata verwendet, um die Zusammenhänge und Ausmaße zu erforschen, in denen Pflanzenpopulationen ihre Leistungsfähigkeit steigern können. Ich untersuche die derzeitige Anwendung sowie zukünftige Potentiale von drei funktionellen Eigenschaften, die in der Züchtung selektiert oder in Pflanzen genetisch modifiziert werden können, um landwirtschaftliche Erträge zu steigern. Zuerst analysiere ich, wie effizient derzeitige landwirtschaftliche Schädlingsresistenztechnologien die Ausbeute erhöhen. Die Expression des Cry1Ac als Verteidigungssystem, eingebracht in N. attenuata durch genetische Modifikation, führte zu keiner Ertragssteigerung im Vergleich zu Pflanzen mit endogener Verteidigung oder sogar unverteidigten N. attenuata-Linien. Da in der Saison des Feldversuchs nur wenige Insekten vorkamen, gegen die das Cry1Ac-System gerichtet ist, reagierten Pflanzen mit endogener Verteidigung plastischer und damit produktiver auf ganzjährlich variierende Herbivorgemeinschaften. Genauso wichtig wie Schädlingsresistenz sind die Ressourcennutzung sowie die Assoziation mit arbuskulären Mykorrhizapilzen (AM-Pilzen), die den Zugang zu Nährstoffen unterstützen. Derzeitige Untersuchungen zu Wassernutzungseigenschaften verschiedener Agrarsorten sind unzureichend: In Versuchen mit Dürrebehandlung werden Unterschiede im Bodenwasserverbrauch oder die Entwicklung der Pflanzen nicht berücksichtigt und führen dementsprechend nicht zu reproduzierbaren Ergebnissen im Feld. Durch Varianzzerlegung quantifizieren wir, in welchem Ausmaß die einzelnen Faktoren, sollten sie unkontrolliert bleiben, die Ergebnisse signifikant verändern können. Mithilfe des ökologisch etablierten Biodiversitäts-Produktivitäts-Phänomens habe ich versucht die Populationserträge zu erhöhen, indem ich die Anteile von Pflanzen mit geringer Wasserverbrauchseffizienz und Kontrollpflanzen variiert habe. Waren solche Pflanzen zu einem geringen Prozentsatz in N. attenuata Feldpopulationen vorhanden, führte dies zu einer Ertragssteigerung. Mittels sowohl neuer als auch etablierter Methoden ist es mir gelungen zum Verständnis der Mechanismen hinter diesem Effekt beizutragen, indem ich eine der zugrundeliegenden genetischen Ursachen identifiziert habe und das räumliche Ausmaß sowie das Pflanzengewebe, in dem dieser Effekt auftritt, eingegrenzt habe. Abschließend entwickelten wir eine Methode, um Kultivare in Agrarpopulationen auf Assoziation mit AM-Pilzen zu untersuchen, bei der im high-throughput-Verfahren ein molekularer Marker im Blatt statt der traditionellen, aufwendigen und schädlichen Mikroskopiemethode verwendet wurde. Diese Arbeit betont die Vorteile von Methodenentwicklung, welche sowohl die Suche nach landwirtschaftlich relevanten Eigenschaften verbessern kann als auch die Anwendung von ökologisch begründeten Alternativen zur Ertragssteigerung ermöglicht (z.B. intraspezifische Diversität)