Translating the Bible into Chinese: Robert Morrison’s Decision to Render the Divine Appellative as a Test Case

On the bi-centenary anniversary of the establishment of the Old Protestant Cemetery in Macao, in which the first Protestant missionary to China, Robert Morrison, is buried, we take the opportunity to revisit one of the great contributions he made, i.e., translating the Bible into Chinese. We focus on the translation decision that he made concerning the divine appellative. After reviewing the semantics of the Christian divine appellative in their original biblical languages, namely, אֱלֹהִים, θεός, and Deus, the earlier Christian missionaries’ proposals, and the implications of the Catholic official ruling on the matter, we make a comparison between Morrison’s version with the Catholic official Chinese version, the Don Scotus Version. The article demonstrates that a reevaluation of the Catholic conventional Chinese rendering of the divine appellative, 天主 Tianzhu, is necessary.   第一位來華的基督教傳教士羅伯特馬禮遜一直安葬在澳門基督教墳場。適逢其兩百週年之際，我們藉此機會重新回顧他所做的其中一項偉大貢獻：將《聖經》翻譯成中文。本文關注的是他針對「神聖名稱」所做的翻譯決定。在考察過在古典語文中「神聖名稱」——即אֱלֹהִים、θεός和Deus——的詞性和語義、早期基督宗教傳教士的提議以及天主教官方對此事的裁決的影響之後，我們將馬禮遜譯本與中國天主教官方翻譯本（《思高》本）進行了比較。本文表明，現在有必要重新評價天主教傳統中文對「天主」這一「神聖稱謂」的翻譯。   No bicentenário da criação do Antigo Cemitério Protestante em Macau, onde está sepultado o primeiro missionário protestante na China, Robert Morrison, aproveitamos a oportunidade para revisitar uma das suas grandes contribuições, i.e., a tradução da Bíblia para o chinês. Focámo-nos na decisão de tradução que tomou a respeito do apelativo divino. Depois de revermos a semântica do apelativo divino cristão nas suas línguas bíblicas originais, nomeadamente אֱלֹהִים, θεός e Deus, as propostas dos primeiros missionários cristãos e as implicações da decisão oficial católica sobre o assunto, fazemos uma comparação entre a versão de Morrison com a versão oficial católica chinesa, a versão de Don Scotus. O artigo demonstra que é necessária uma reavaliação da tradução católica convencional chinesa do apelativo divino, 天主 Tianzhu.   Keywords: Bible translation; Robert Morrison; Tianzhu; Shangdi; Deu

Natural Law and the Jewish Hălāḵâ: Are the Noahide Mitzvot an Example of Reason Revelled Universal Moral Laws in Rabbinic Judaism?

This paper will look at the relationship between Natural Law and The Halacha, the moral code of Rabbinic Judaism. Just as it happens with Sunni Islam, the general opinion among scholars is that natural morality is a concept alien to the Judaic religion and its law. However, the most fervent defender of natural morality in Judaism, David Novak, has argued and continues to argue that there is a basis of Natural Law thinking underneath the mitzvot of the Jewish Halacha. In this article, we will look at how some of the language used in the Talmud and in Maimonide’s Mishneh Torah corroborates Novak’s claims that the Mishnaic Noahite Laws may have a Natural Law a priori motivation. Keywords: Halacha, Noahite Laws, Revealed Law, Natural Law, Mishnah, Talmud, Torah, Mishneh Torah, Rabbinic Judaism, Maimonide

The The Life of The First Pentecostal Missionary to China

This article chronologically compiles the life and work of T. J. McIntosh. A legendary figure, T.J. McIntosh was the first Protestant Pentecostal missionary sent by the Pentecostal Holiness Church of the USA to China and arrived in Macau by faith on August 7th, 1907. McIntosh had followed the voice within him which he believed to be from the Holy Spirit and bravely voyaged around the world twice with his family, without any solid financial support. He pioneered missional effort in Macau, Hong Kong, and Sainam. As the first Pentecostal missionary to China. McIntosh did not stay in China long enough to see the fruit of his work. Yet his efforts and impact has been taken up and continued by both other missionaries and local Chinese believers

Robert Morrison’s Spiritual Roots

While we can never know a person’s heart nor everything going on in his/her mind, we can deduce from the person’s life context, the underlying roots, what seems to motivate the action of a person. This paper explores these matters for the life of Robert Morrison, early Nineteenth Century Protestant Missionary to China. Considering the religious background of Morrison through the lens of Charles Taylor’s work “Sources of the Self” leads to a view of how Morrison’s early years motivated his life’s work. Exploring his religious and spiritual experiences in the home, Christian/Church of Scotland community, and educational context reveals motivating factors leading Morrison to the Far East and a lifetime of missionary service.Key Words: Robert Morrison, Church of Scotland, Priesthood of the Believer, Missionary Motivation, Educatio

从清宫戏看当代流行文化对南怀仁形象的建构: The Construction of the Image of Verbiest in Contemporary Popular Culture

In recent years, due to its frequent appearance in “Chinese court dramas”, especially in those focused on the Kangxi emperor, the image of Verbiest has moved from historical documents to the proscenium and gradually entered the sight of the contemporary public. Compared with the “historical Verbiest,” the image of Verbiest in popular culture is without doubt scattered, incomplete, or even distorted. This article first intends to raise the question of “who is Verbiest” from the viewpoint of popular culture, and then examines the main characteristics of the image of Verbiest presented in the dramas and the identity constructed based on contemporary experience. Finally, the paper attempts to reflect by way of analogy on how the image of Verbiest relates to contemporary Chinese cultural context.作为明清之际耶稣会传教士的代表人物之一，南怀仁的工作及其历史地位在学术界已经有较为充足的论述。然而，南怀仁的名字始终只是出现于历史文献和学术研讨之中。近年来，由于频繁地出现在“清宫戏”，尤以康熙为主题的影视剧作中，南怀仁从历史深处走到了前台，逐渐进入当代公众的视线

利玛窦、汤若望和南怀仁: 在中国“科学传教”的变迁

This essay explores the continuity between the “scientific apostolate” associated with Adam Schall von Bell and Ferdinand Verbiest, and the original mission strategy of “cultural accommodation” developed by Ricci, Ruggieri, and Valignano. Though it stirred some controversy within the Jesuit community, as if it were a violation of the community’s rules against members of the order accepting political offices, Schall’s acceptance was approved in Rome, on the assumption that it was necessary to preserve the Jesuit mission of evangelization in China. After all, Ricci himself had petitioned his Jesuit superiors in Rome to send missionaries who not only could communicate in Chinese but who also possessed specific expertise in mathematics and astronomy. Ricci’s initial contribution to the strategy of “cultural accommodation,” however, entailed making strategically important friendships with the Chinese literati, friendships based on mutual respect for each other’s learning and mutual interest in the advancement of science, which was the basis for the hospitality that Ricci and his companions received from some of the Confucianliterati. But by the time Schall and Verbiest sought to carry on the strategy of culturalaccommodation, the task was significantly complicated by the violent transition from the Ming to the Qing dynasty, and was far more controversial, both in Beijing as well as in Rome. This essay seeks to explore some of that complexity.这篇文章探讨了与汤若望（Schall）和南怀仁（Verbiest）有关的“科学传教”与利玛窦（Ricci）、罗明坚（Ruggieri）和范礼安（Valignano）制定的“文化适应” （cultural accommodation）传教战略之间的连续性。尽管这在耶稣会内部引起了一些争议，似乎这违反了耶稣会禁止其成员接受政治职务的规定，但罗马还是批准了汤若望的接受，理由是这对维护耶稣会在中国的传教使命是必要的。毕竟，利玛窦本人曾向他在罗马的耶稣会上司请愿，希望派遣不仅能用中文交流，而且还具备数学和天文学专业知识的传教士。然而，利玛窦对“文化适应”战略的最初贡献，是与中国文人结下了具有战略意义的友谊，这种友谊建立在对彼此学识的相互尊重和对科学进步的共同兴趣之上。在北京和罗马，利玛窦和他的同伴们从一些儒家文人那里得到的款待，在汤若望和南怀仁试图在明朝向清朝的暴力过渡所造成的极其复杂的环境中继续下去时，却引起了更大的争议。本文试图探讨这种复杂性

面对战争: 探索中国电影英雄的困境

For over 30 years I have had different opportunities to involve people from different walks of life in Asia and in Europe in workshops on Confucian ethics with a focus on the “hero,” defined by the Cambridge Dictionary as “the main character or the main male character in a book or film, who is usually good”. This type of a hero thus sticks to his or her values of respect, loyalty, compassion, and wisdom in the middle of adversities and challenges. Within the Chinese tradition of “hero” however we may not always be assured of a “Hollywood Happy Ending” as heroes do face the tragedy of war and deadly conflicts; nevertheless, the key highlight for a more systematic narrative analysis of the different dramas of heroes is to recognise in their struggles with a host of obstacles and moral dilemmas, while always facing death and destruction, a unique opportunity to reconnect to one’s own better self.30多年来，我有各种机会与来自亚洲和欧洲不同行业的人在研讨会上围绕“英雄”讨论儒家伦理，英雄一词在剑桥词典中的定义是“书中或电影中的主角或主要男性人物，通常是好人”。这种类型的英雄在逆境和挑战中坚持着尊重、忠诚、同情和智慧的价值观。然而，中国传统中的“英雄”并不见得总有“好莱坞式的大团圆结局”，因为英雄确实会面临战争和致命冲突的悲剧；然而，对不同戏剧英雄进行更系统叙事分析的关键是，要认识到他们在诸多障碍和道德困境中的挣扎，也要认识到他们面临的死亡与毁灭，这是一个刷新自我认知的难得机会

造就游戏规则改变者: 《澳门宣言》——一致行动：你准备好签字了吗？

The pandemic of COVID-19, as painful and disastrous as it has been, may offer a wake-up call for many to become finally aware that the gap between the rich and the poor keeps opening: while on the one hand some of the richer countries are able to vaccinate several times their population, on the other hand, some countries only know for sure that a countless number of people will die because they did not even get the basic protection or were victims of irresponsible political decisions.新冠病毒大流行，给人们带来无尽的痛苦和灾难，同时也唤醒了许多人，让他们终于意识到贫富之间的差距不断扩大：一方面，一些富裕国家能够为其公民多次接种疫苗，而另一方面，有些国家只是确切知道无数人甚至因为得不到基本保护而将死亡，或者成为不负责任的政治决策的受害者