An investigation into the impact of age and task type on oral interactions of young learners of Chinese as a second language

Oral interaction is crucial for second language learning because it provides opportunities to practice the target language and enhance the comprehensibility of both input and output (Long, 1981; Oliver, 2002; Swain, 2005). However, there is a paucity of research that has examined oral interactions among young learners of Chinese as a second language. This study involved 110 students aged 10-12 from five primary schools in Hong Kong. The study analyzed interaction patterns and topic management skills when they performed two types of tasks. Results showed that the most frequently displayed pattern was collaborative, followed by dominant/passive. Regarding the impact of task type, the percentages of collaborative and expert/novice patterns were higher in the required information exchange tasks than in the optional information exchange tasks. In addition, the required information exchange tasks triggered significantly more turns, target language, short-other-extensions, and other-extensions than the optional information exchange tasks. There was an increase in the exhibition of collaborative patterns and a decrease in dominant/passive patterns from Grades 4 to 6. However, there were no significant differences in the measures of topic management skills across the three grades

Task flow in L2 writing: Antecedents and effects on task performance

Flow has been highly valued by educational researchers and practitioners for its positive effects on learner well-being, learning outcomes, and academic success. While interest in flow within second language (L2) acquisition has grown recently, comprehensive evidence remains limited regarding both its antecedents and its impact on L2 task performance, particularly in writing contexts. Grounded in Egbert’s (2003) theoretical model of flow and language acquisition, this study investigated how flow states in L2 writing are shaped by learners’ prior writing proficiency and immediate perceptions of task control, and how these factors collectively influence writing task performance. A total of 206 Chinese eighth-graders learning English as a foreign languagecompleted a pre-task L2 writing proficiency test, an argumentative writing task, and post-task scales measuring task flow and task control. Path analysis revealed that perceived task control predicted task performance both directly and indirectly through its influence on task flow. In contrast, L2 writing proficiency predicted task performance directly, without mediation by task flow. These findings largely support Egbert’s (2003) model within a task-based L2 writing context. The study suggests pedagogical implications for task design, emphasizing the importance of fostering a sense of control to facilitate flow states and enhance task performance

Pride in language teaching: Scale development and associations with work engagement, wellbeing, and burnout

In recent years, there has been a growing interest in research on language teacher emotions while relatively fewer studies have focused on language teachers’ professional pride. This study aims to develop and validate a scale for language teacher pride (LTP), and it seeks to understand how this critically important emotion may be linked to other central, conceptually related constructs including wellbeing, work engagement, and burnout. Data were collected employing an online questionnaire in which 423 language teachers from 52 countries took part in the study. The results of exploratory factor analysis, confirmatory factor analysis, and exploratory structural equation modeling revealed that the newly constructed Language Teacher Pride Scale (LTPS) reflects the multifaceted nature of LTP as a positive emotional experience. We further found that language teachers with a heightened sense of pride in their teaching were more engaged in their work, had higher wellbeing, and were less prone to burnout. We hope that the results of this study will aid future research by informing policy and practice as well as theory building about the role of pride as a potential core construct in positive psychology, which can help us to understand and support teacher flourishing

Introduction to the special issue on foreign language anxiety: Theoretical and methodological developments

This introduction outlines the theoretical and methodological developments that have shaped research on foreign language anxiety since Scovel’s (1978) foundational review. Building on MacIntyre’s (2017) synthesis of the confounding, specialized, and dynamic phases, we argue that the field has entered a new contextual phase characterized by increasingly narrow, context-specific research questions and more sophisticated analytic approaches. We summarize eight contributions included in this special issue, which collectively span person-centered, cross-cultural, physiological, dynamic, and task-specific examinations of language anxiety. These studies expand the nomological network of language anxiety by incorporating constructs such as shame, guilt, and imposter phenomenon; revisit debates surrounding the directionality of the anxiety-proficiency relationship; and employ innovative methodologies including latent profile analysis, Bayesian modelling, heart-rate variability, and experience sampling. Together, they demonstrate how language anxiety is best understood as a contextually grounded and dynamic construct

Sustaining growth needs contextual supports: The mindset × ecological-system approach to motivation

The belief that abilities can be cultivated, commonly referred to as a growth mindset, plays an important role in learners’ motivation and persistence in their educational journey, including learning a new language. Recent research suggests that having a growth mindset alone is insufficient for educational success. Rather, the “seed” of growth mindsets flourishes best when the “soil” of the environment offers students abundant opportunities to apply and implement their growth mindsets in their learning process (i.e., the mindset × context theory). However, discussions about this contextual impact, particularly within the broader sociocultural environment (akin to “climate” in the seed-and-soil metaphor) are limited in mindset research. Therefore, this article introduces the mindset × ecological-system framework by synthesizing emerging research from psychology, education, and applied linguistics, aiming to provide a more comprehensive understanding of how social and cultural factors impact the psychological dynamics of mindsets. This framework illustrates how embedded socioecological systems, ranging from interpersonal to cultural contexts, influence the psychological processes through which mindsets shape learning and resilience. This ecological system framework of mindset serves as a guide for future research to examine how to sustain learners’ growth in diverse sociocultural and achievement settings

Competence need satisfaction in language learning (and beyond): Current state of the evidence and directions for exploration

According to self-determination theory, the need to experience competence is one of a well-recognized trio of basic psychological needs, alongside the need for autonomy and relatedness. Although often assessed at the activity level, the need for competence is met situationally when learners feel able to understand and affect the world around them. In language learning, this means the feeling of success firstly in the comprehension and then in the use of the new language. This situated, contextual sense of competence helps explain the complex and dynamic development of motivation within the language learner. In this review, we focus on the need for competence as it applies both theoretically and empirically to the study of learning a new language. Building on scholarship showing that competence need satisfaction is a powerful correlate of motivation in education generally, we survey the evidence for competence need satisfaction as a specific predictor of language learning motivation and achievement, with directions for future exploration. We present a thought experiment for new methods and approaches to the measurement of competence in classrooms

Applying latent profile analysis in foreign language anxiety research: Uncovering hidden groups

To gain a deeper understanding of the complexity of Foreign Language Anxiety (FLA), researchers have leveraged various quantitative and qualitative methods. Considering the quantitative methods, researchers have mostly relied on variable-centered approaches to examine the relationships between FLA and other variables. However, less attention has been given to person-centered approaches, which aim to identify subgroups of a population to better understand individual differences and heterogeneity. This study applies latent profile analysis (LPA), a robust person-centered method, to uncover FLA profiles and to examine the predictors and outcomes of FLA profiles. To this aim, we first reviewed person-centered methods, addressing best practices and methodological considerations for conducting LPA. For the empirical study, we gathered data from 384 tertiary-level EFL learners using a questionnaire, which measured their FLA, achievement goals, and willingness to communicate. The LPA results revealed five distinct latent profiles of FLA, characterized not only by the intensity of anxiety but also its manifestations and triggers. Each profile also showed meaningful differences in achievement goals and willingness to communicate. By applying LPA, we could gain a deeper understanding of how FLA is experienced across different learner subgroups. We believe person-centered approaches, such as LPA, provide additional value to investigate anxiety and other emotions in language education research

Cross-lagged panel analysis of reciprocal effects of metacognitive knowledge and breadth of vocabulary knowledge in a foreign language context

Metacognitive knowledge significantly influences English vocabulary knowledge. However, few longitudinal studies have explored the reciprocal growth trajectories of metacognitive knowledge and English vocabulary knowledge over time. The present study explores how young primary school learners develop their metacognitive knowledge and vocabulary knowledge from Grade 3 to Grade 6.The longitudinal sample included 361 Grade 3 (third-year primary school) students (M = 9.60 years, SD = 0.85). The participants completed tests of metacognitive knowledge and vocabulary knowledge on four occasions. The metacognitive knowledge test focused on students’ cognitive activities, whereas the vocabulary knowledge test focused on learners’ breadth of vocabulary knowledge. Cross-lagged panel analysis was employed to explore the reciprocal effects of metacognitive knowledge and the breadth of vocabulary knowledge. The results supported the role of metacognitive knowledge in developing the breadth of vocabulary knowledge, and vice versa. Implications for young learners’ longitudinal development of metacognitive knowledge and vocabulary knowledge are discussed.