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JA, KUSAKA

English

Afropolitan Imagination in Teju Cole’s Tremor

Article【特別推進プロジェクト／The Research Project】departmental bulletin pape

金, 圓景

宮﨑, 理

武川, 正吾

Japanese

「複数の文化を生きる高齢者」への支援にソーシャルワーカーはどう向き合うべきか─在日韓国・朝鮮人高齢者と「故郷の家」を中心に─

Article【調査研究報告／Brief Reports】departmental bulletin pape

植木, 献

野副, 朋子

塩谷, 祐人

報告：食の選択と栄養学研究

Article【研究ノート／Note】departmental bulletin pape

佐々木, 雄一

「公文別録　親任官任免」から見る近代日本の内閣

坂本, 隆幸

刊行によせて

Article【査読論文／Refereed Articles】departmental bulletin pape

BIRTILL, Jacob James

Writing with Intent: Academic Writing in the Age of Large Language Models

SATO, Tsutomu

111. Introduction	 The	 topic	of	 this	paper	 is	 the	opposition	of	 short	and	 long	vowels	 in	Palauan,	 another	Austronesian	 language,	which	belongs	 to	 the	Western	Malayo-Polynesian	group,	as	classified	in	Lynch	(1998:	46).		 The	first	purpose	is	to	clarify	the	Durational	Ratio	of	the	oppsition	and	compare	the	value	with	those	of	other	Austronesian	languages	investigated	in	 this	 study.	Durational	Ratio	 (DR,	hereafter)	 is	put	 forward	by	 	Lehiste	(1970),	and	can	be	obtained	by	dividing	the	average	duration	of	long	vowels	by	 that	of	 short	vowels.	The	second	aim	 is	 to	 find	out	and	examine	 the	grammatical	functions	performed	by	the	opposition	in	Palauan,	in	addition	to	the	semantic	contrasts	of	short	and	long	vowels.	 Section	 2	 will	 summarize	 the	 grammatical	 functions	 of	 Oceanic	languages	which	were	treated	and	discussed	 in	this	study	so	 far.	Then,	 in	section	3,	derivational	function	and	anticipating	state	verbs	exerted	by	short	and	 long	 vowels	 of	 Palauan	 will	 be	 introduced	 as	 the	 examples	 of	grammatical	 functions.	Section	4	will	describe	the	experimental	procedure,	including	the	data,	participants,	and	recordings	and	mesurements.	Finally,	the	results	will	be	shown	in	Section	5,	and	further	topics	will	be	mentioned	in	Section	6,	i.e.,	resulting	state	verbs	marked	by	short	and	long	consonants	in	Palauan.Vowel	Prolongation	and		Grammatical	Functions	in	PalauanTsutomu	SATOVowel Prolongation and Grammatical Functions in Palauan22. Vowel Lengthening and Grammatical Functions	 Firth	 (1985:	 xxv),	 quoting	 the	 following	examples	 of	 short	 and	 long	vowels	from	Tikopia,	states	as	follows:						 Vowel	prolongation	is	also	used	in	a	few	cases	to	differentiate	verb	from		 	substantive	of	 the	same	 form:	 te	anu	 -	spittle;	a:nu	 -	 to	spit.	But	most	vowel	lengthening	is	semantic,	not	grammatical.	 Although	 the	 number	 and	 frequency	might	 be	 smaller	 and	 less,	grammatical	functions	do	work	in	the	oppositions	of	short	and	long	vowels.	In	previous	works,	for	instance,	the	following	grammatical	function	by	short	[o]	and	long	[o:]	is	introduced	from	Aroma,	a	language	in	Papua	New	Guinea,	in	Lynch	and	Piau	 (1989:36),	what	 they	described	as	 ‘extremely	crucial’	contrast:	 [pono δ ao]			‘go!’	 [po:no δ ao]		‘don’t	go!’			While	searching	for	the	DRs	of	more	and	more	languages,	more	grammatical	functions	performed	by	short	and	long	vowel	oppositions	have	been	treated	in	this	study,	as	well.	 First	 of	 all,	 singular	 and	plural	 contrasts	 can	be	 seen	 in	not	 a	 few	Oceanic	 languages.	The	opposition	of	Kiribati	 short	and	 long	vowels	 is	 	a	good	illustration	(Sato	2009).(1)	 a.	ika	(sg.)/	i:ka	(pl.)			‘fish’					 b.	ben	‘coconut’/	be:n			‘coconuts’Hawaiian	 short	 and	 long	vowels	denote	 singular	and	plural	 contrasts	of	[+human]	nouns	(Sato	2017a).Vowel Prolongation and Grammatical Functions in Palauan32(2)	 a.	wahine	‘woman’/	wa:hine	‘women’	 b.	kahuna	‘priest’	/	ka:huna	‘priests’Tuvaluan	vowel	oppositions	mark	the	contrasts	in	not	only	[+human]	nouns	but	also	grammatical	agreement,	 in	adjectives	and	verbs	 	 (Sato	2018a),	 for	example,	as	shown	in	(3).(3)	 a.	tagata	‘man’　	ta:gata	‘men’	 b.	apo	(sg.)　	a:po	(pl.)	‘elegant’		 c.	tapu:	(sg.)		ta:pu:	(pl.)	‘gain	relief’	Likewise,	Kapingamarangi	vowels	 	 (Sato	 2019)	 contrast	 in	 the	 following	examples.(4)	 a.	abi	(sg.)　	/	a:bi		(pl.)	‘prevent’	 b.	malama	(sg.)	/	ma:lama	(pl.)	‘shine’Nukuoro	vowels	(Sato	2020)	also	do	so	as	follows.(5)	 a.	hahine		‘woman’/	ha:hine	‘women’	 b.	ago	(sg.)	/	a:go	(pl.)	‘learn’	 Second,	derivational	contrast	is	shown	by	Mele	and	Fila	short	and	long	vowels	(Sato	2017b,	c,	2018b,	c).(6)	 jijika	‘hopping’	(n)		/ji:jika	‘hop’	(v)Derivational	 contrast	occur	 in	Palauan	as	well,	 and	 the	examples	will	be	introduced	in	the	following	section.	 Another	example	is	an	intransitive	and	transitive	contrast	by	also	Mele	and	Fila	vowel	opposition	(Sato	2017b,	c,	2018b,	c).Vowel Prolongation and Grammatical Functions in Palauan4(7)	 siva	‘bounce’	(vi)			/si:va	‘bounce～’	(vt)	 Furthermore,	 instances	of	verbal	action	and	its	equipment	can	be	seen	in	Mele	and	Fila	by	the	opposition.(8)	 soro	‘cut	with	a	saw’	/	so:ro	‘saw’	 Finally,	a	contrast	between	a	noun	and	 its	stative	verb	counterpart	 is	made	by		Tuvaluan	short	and	long	vowels	(Sato	2018a).(9)	 a.	lafa　‘ringworm’		/lafa:	‘be	affected	by	ringworm’	 b.	aka　‘roots’		/aka:	‘be	heavily	rooted’	 c.	kaumana　‘cloud’			/kaumana:	‘be	cloudy’3. Palauan Vowels and Grammatical Functions	 In	addition	 to	semantic	contrasts,	grammatical	contrasts	are	made	by	short	and	long	vowels	in	Palauan.	For	example,	a	long	vowel	functions	as	an	anticipating	state	verb,	abbreviated	as	VAS	as	in	(10b)	:(10)	 a.	kekesul	(N)		‘scratch	mark’	 b.	kekesu:l	(VAS)		‘is	to	be	scratched’As	mentioned	in	the	previous	section,	derivational	relation	can	be	shown	by	Palauan	short	and	long	vowels	as	follows:(11)	 bekebul	‘smell’	(n)	/bekebu:l	‘has	strong	(body)	odor’	(v)The	DR	will	 be	 calculated	 and	 compared,	 and	 the	 procedure	will	 be	mentioned	in	the	following	section.Vowel Prolongation and Grammatical Functions in Palauan544. Procedure4.1 Data	 The	following	16	pairs	of	32	words	were	extracted	from	Josephs	(1990)	and	used	for	the	production	experiment,	four	pairs	of	grammatical	contrasts	in	(12)	and	12	pairs	of	semantic	contrasts	in	(13).(12)a.	bekebul	‘smell’	/bekebu:l	‘has	strong	(body)	odor’b.	dub	‘bomb’	(n)	/	du:b	‘bomb’	(v)	c.	chub	‘gift,	bribe’	(n)	/	chu:b	‘solicit	with	gift;	bribe;	induce’	(v)	d.	kekesul	‘scratch	mark’	(n)	/	kekesu:l	‘is	to	be	scratched’	(VAS)	(13)a.	olechis	‘empty	(liquid)	from	container’	/olechi:s	‘chase	away’b.	ulchis	‘emptied’	/	ulchi:s	‘chase	away’c.	desil	‘friend’	/	desi:l	‘last	day	of	celebration’	d.	ultil	‘imprint’	/	ulti:l	‘leaned	against’e.	ulech	‘connected’	/	u:lech	‘rag	for	cleaning	feet’f.	luk	‘silence’	/	lu:k	‘nest’g.	delul	‘area	within’	/	delu:l	‘folded’h.	oldum	‘bring	to	surface’	/	oldu:m	‘push	downwards’i.	omus	‘tie’	/	omu:s	‘order	from’j.	buch	‘spouse’	/	bu:ch	‘nut’k.	mengum	‘bake’	/	mengu:m	‘wrap’l.	uchel	‘middle	finger’	/	u:chel	‘make	regret’4.2 Participants	 The	 following	 five	 speakers	 of	Palauan	 are	 the	participants	 of	 this	experiment:	AN	(M,	58),	GM	(F,	58),	TN	(F,	57),	RA	(F,	57),	and		RK(F,	33).	They	were	born	and	raised	in	Koror,	Palau.Vowel Prolongation and Grammatical Functions in Palauan64.3 Recordings and Measurements	 The	participants	were	individually	asked	to	pronounce	the	tokens	in	(12)	and	 (13),	which	were	 randomly	 listed	 on	 a	 sheet	 of	 paper,	with	 five	repetitions,	and	the	data	were	recorded	by	the	Sony	 linear	PCM	recorder	called	M10.		The	duration	of	vowels	in	the	tokens	were	measured	by	using	waveform	and	wide-band	spectrogram	of	the	speech	analysis	program	called	Praat. 5. Results	 The	results	are	shown	in	Table	1.	The	DR	of	grammatical	group,	i.e.,	(12)	turns	out	to	be	1.44,	and	the	DR	of	semantic	group,	i.e.,	(13)	is	1.86.	Table 1. The Durational Ratios of the dataAN GM TN RA RK AvVGbekebul bekebu:l 1.18 1.83 1.36 1.58 1.8 1.55dub du:b 1.73 1.25 1.19 1.08 1.3 1.31chub chu:b 1.33 1.89 1.13 1.27 1.07 1.338kekesul kekesu:l 1.41 1.88 1.67 1.44 1.41 1.562Av 1.4125 1.7125 1.3375 1.3425 1.395 1.44VSolechis olechi:s 1.48 1.47 1.48 1.31 1.87 1.522ulchis ulchi:s 1.83 1.42 1.16 1.71 1.99 1.622desil desi:l 1.66 1.68 1.5 1.59 1.79 1.644ultil ulti:l 2.01 1.72 1.31 1.22 2.12 1.676ulech u:lech 1.93 1.39 1.31 2.38 1.78 1.758luk lu:k 2.32 2.61 1.99 1.43 2.44 2.158delul delu:l 2.36 1.89 1.4 1.66 2.67 1.996oldum oldu:m 1.38 2.29 1.28 1.11 1.96 1.604omus omu:s 2.46 1.57 2.05 1.45 1.84 1.874buch bu:ch 3.3 2.48 1.84 2.55 3.22 2.678mengum mengu:m 1.83 1.55 1.45 1.18 2.21 1.644uchel u:chel 1.66 1.79 2.67 3 1.91 2.206Av 2.018333 1.821667 1.62 1.715833 2.15 1.865167The	DR	of	grammatical	group,	1.44,	 is	compared	 in	 the	 following	order	of	Vowel Prolongation and Grammatical Functions in Palauan76DRs	of	grammatical	contrasts	of	other	Austronesian	languages:Hawaiian		2.54		>		Nukuoro		2.22			>		Kapingamarangi				2.2		>			Kiribati	1.85			>		Tuvaluan		1.67			>			Palauan		1.44			>			Fila		1.24		>		Mele		1.05		The	DR	of	semantic	group,	1.86,	 is	compared	 in	 the	 following	sequence	of	DRs	of	semantic	contrasts.	Fijian	and	Drehu	have	semantic	contrasts	only.Nukuoro		2.32			>		Kapingamarangi				2.16		>		Hawaiian		2.14				>		Kiribati	1.86	=	Palauan	 	 1.86	 	>	 	Drehu	 	 1.30	 	>	 	Fila	 	 1.24	 	>	 	Mele	 	 1.20	 	>	Tuvaluan		1.11			>			Fijian			1.10	 The	DR	of	grammatical	group,	1.44	 is	the	third	from	the	lowest	 in	the	examples.	A		statistic	test	should	be	conducted	to	compare	the	DR	with	the	lowest,	1.05	of	Mele,	for	instance.		 The	DR	of	 semantic	group,	 1.86	 is	 the	 same	as	 that	of	Kiribati,	 and	ranks	 in	 the	 lowest	 of	 the	 relatively	 higher	 group,	 i .e. ,	 Nukuoro,	Kapingamarangi,	Hawaiian,	Kiribati	and	Palauan.				 Discussion	on	DR	values,	i.e.,	high	or	low,	will	be	held	in	more	detail	in	the	 forthcoming	 paper	 on	 consonant	 contrasts	 of	 Palauan,	which	 are	introduced	in	Section	6	below.	 In	the	semanic	group,	the	DR	of	four	pairs	of	i/i:	contrasts,	1.61,		is	lower	than	that	of	eight	pairs	of	u/u:	contrasts,	1.98,	as	shown	in	Table	2.Table 2. The contrasts of i/i: examples and u/u: examples of the semantic groupVS AN GM TN RA RK Avolechis olechi:s 1.48 1.47 1.48 1.31 1.87 1.522ulchis ulchi:s 1.83 1.42 1.16 1.71 1.99 1.622desil desi:l 1.66 1.68 1.5 1.59 1.79 1.644ultil ulti:l 2.01 1.72 1.31 1.22 2.12 1.676Av 1.745 1.5725 1.3625 1.4575 1.9425 1.616ulech u:lech 1.93 1.39 1.31 2.38 1.78 1.758luk lu:k 2.32 2.61 1.99 1.43 2.44 2.158delul delu:l 2.36 1.89 1.4 1.66 2.67 1.996Vowel Prolongation and Grammatical Functions in Palauan8oldum oldu:m 1.38 2.29 1.28 1.11 1.96 1.604omus omu:s 2.46 1.57 2.05 1.45 1.84 1.874buch bu:ch 3.3 2.48 1.84 2.55 3.22 2.678mengum mengu:m 1.83 1.55 1.45 1.18 2.21 1.644uchel u:chel 1.66 1.79 2.67 3 1.91 2.206Av 2.155 1.94625 1.74875 1.845 2.25375 1.98975The	cause	of	the	difference	is	not	clear	at	this	stage.	6. Further Studies	 Palauan	has	approximants,	 or	 liquids,	 i.e.,	 /l/	and	/r/,	and	respective	geminated	counterparts.	 i.e.,	/ll/	and	/rr/	 function	as	resulting	state	verbs,	VRS,		as	follows:(14)	 a.	lechet	(N)		bondage;	something	tied	around	 b.	llechet	(VRS)		tied(15)	 a.	rasm	(N)		needle	 b.	rrasm	(VRS)		sewnThe	durational	ratios	of	 these	grammatical	contrasts	caused	by	consonant	oppositions	will	 be	made	 clear,	 and	 the	 acoustic	 characteristics	 of	 the	geminated	approximants	should	be	 investigated	 in	 forthcoming	papers	of	this	study.AcknowledgementsThe author acknowledges his indebtedness to Grace Merong, the Manager of Micronesia-Pacific Collection in Palau Community College (PCC) Library, for her valuable comments on the tokens and precious help in collecting the data. References Firth,	Raymond	(1985)	Tikopia English Dictionary.	University	of	Auckland	Services.Josephs,	Lewis	S.	(1990)	New Palauan-English Dictionary.	University	of	Hawai’i	Press.Vowel Prolongation and Grammatical Functions in Palauan98Lehiste,	Ilse	(1970)	Suprasegmentals.	MIT	Press.Lynch,	John	(1998)	Pacific Languages: An Introduction.	University	of	Hawai’i	Press.Lynch,	John	and	Julie	Piau	(1989)		Introduction to Descriptive Linguistics.	University	of	Papua	New	Guinea.Sato,	Tsutomu	(2009)	Durational	Contrasts	in	the	World’s	Languages:	Short	and	Long	Vowel	Oppositions	 in	Kiribati.	The Journal of English and American Literature and Linguistics,	Meiji	Gakuin	University,	124,	153-165.Sato,	Tsutomu	(2017a)	The	Durational	Ratio	of	Short	and	Long	Vowels	in	Hawaiian:	A	Preliminary	Investigation. The Journal of English and American Literature and Linguistics,	Meiji	Gakuin	University,	132,	43-54.Sato,	Tsutomu	(2017b)	Mele	–	Another	Case	of	Losing	its	Short	and	Long	Segmental	Duration	Contrasts?	The Journal of English and American Literature and Linguistics,	Meiji	Gakuin	University,	132,	55-65.Sato,	Tsutomu	(2017c)	The Durational Ratios of Short and Long Segments in Mele and their Linguistic Functions. The	10th	Conference	on	Oceanic	Linguistics	 (COOL	10).	Honiara,	Solomon.Sato,	Tsutomu	(2018a)	Linguistic	Functions	Performed	by	Short	and	Long	Segments	in	Tuvaluan.	The Journal of English and American Literature and Linguistics,	Meiji	Gakuin	University,	133,	1-9.Sato,	Tsutomu	 (2018b)	The	Durational	Ratios	 in	 the	case	of	Fila.	The Journal of English and American Literature and Linguistics,	Meiji	Gakuin	University,	133,	11-21.Sato,	Tsutomu	(2018c)	The Duration Ratios of Short and Long Segments in Mele and their Linguistic Functions.	 SIL	Language	 and	Culture	Documentation	 and	Description	42.	Issue	Co-editors:	Brenda	H.	Boerger	and	Paul	Unger	 https://www.sil.org/resources/publications/entry/76983	 https://www.sil.org/resources/publications/entry/82335Sato,	Tsutomu	 (2019)	Polynesian	Outliers	 in	Micronesia:	 the	Durational	Ratios	and	Linguistic	Functions	of	Short	and	Long	Vowels	in	Kapingamarangi.	The Journal of English and American Literature and Linguistics,	Meiji	Gakuin	University,	134,	17-29.Sato,	Tsutomu	 (2020)	Polynesian	Outliers	 in	Micronesia	2:	 the	Durational	Ratios	of	Short	 and	Long	Vowels	 in	Nukuoro.	The Journal of English and American Literature and Linguistics,	Meiji	Gakuin	University,	135,	63-70.Sato,	Tsutomu	(2022)	 	Durational	Ratios	of	Short	and	Long	Segments	of	Melanesian	Languages	1:	Vowels	of	Drehu.	The Journal of English and American Literature and Linguistics,	Meiji	Gakuin	University,	137,	45-52.Sato,	Tsutomu	(2024)	The	Durational	Ratio	of	Short	and	Long	Vowels	of	Fijian.	The Journal of English and American Literature and Linguistics,	Meiji	Gakuin	University,	139,	51-57.

Vowel Prolongation and Grammatical Functions in Palauan

岡田, 仁

水俣病事件とキリスト教―ゲルハルト・リートケ神学との対話―

Article【フォーラム／Forum】departmental bulletin pape

イワノワ, ゲルガナ

古典文学の多生─『枕草子』の享受史から

Article【判例研究／Case Note】departmental bulletin pape

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