Exploring Athletes' Preferences of Coaching Leadership Behaviours in Strength and Conditioning Coaching: A Mixed Methods Study at a British University

The study investigated athletes’ preferred coaching leadership behaviours in strength and conditioning coaching at a British University, integrating quantitative and qualitative data to evaluate the confirmation or divergence of results. Athletes' preferences were explored to offer novel perspectives in this area. A convergent mixed methods design with parallel databases was implemented, using quantitative data through an electronic questionnaire using the athletesˈ preference version of the Revised Leadership Scale for Strength and Conditioning and qualitative data through semi-structured interviews based on the constructs of that scale. A total of 49 male and female British university athletes completed the questionnaire, and 13 participated in follow-up interviews. The qualitative purposeful sample was a subset of the convenience quantitative sample. The mixed-methods findings are the meta-inferences drawn by comparing the matched quantitative and qualitative findings across six behavioural dimensions: autocratic, democratic, positive feedback, situational consideration, social support, and training and instruction behaviours. The survey results illustrate the preferences of behaviours, and the qualitative findings confirmed and further expanded the survey results. Athletes appreciate a mix of autocratic and democratic behaviours, valuing authority when necessary but predominantly collaboration, especially in goal-setting. Positive feedback and instructions are highly valued when genuine, contextually appropriate, and provided during significant efforts, such as when lifting heavy weights or learning new techniques. Athletes appreciate coaches who maintain professional boundaries whilst showing empathy, strong social interaction skills, and the capacity to consider situational factors to set achievable goals. An integrated mixed-methods analysis highlights how behaviours cannot be evaluated independently of context and that strength and conditioning coaches should exhibit adaptability and a genuine interest in developing personal connections. These findings offer a basis for further research to expand the investigation of coaching leadership behaviours in strength and conditioning coaching

Supportive vs. Unsupportive Coaching: Correlating Leadership Approaches with Injury Rates in Elite Athletes

This quantitative, longitudinal analysis leverages post hoc data from the National Football League (NFL) and Fox Sports to investigate the influence of coaching style on injury dynamics among elite athletes. By categorizing coaching behaviors as supportive, neutral, or unsupportive, the study examines how these styles correlate with both the frequency and type of injuries sustained by professional football players. The findings offer valuable insights for athletes, athletic trainers, medical personnel, and coaches engaged in injury prevention and rehabilitation, as well as for leadership researchers interested in performance outcomes under varying guidance styles. Guided by existing literature, three hypotheses were proposed: (a) athletes coached by unsupportive leaders will experience a higher injury incidence compared to those under supportive leadership; (b) unsupportive coaching will be associated with a greater number of chronic injuries across teams; and (c) unsupportive styles will correlate with increased injury counts and extended recovery durations among NFL athletes. Quantitative trend analysis confirms that unsupportive coaching is significantly associated with elevated incidence rates for specific injury categories. However, this correlation does not extend to all injury types. Conversely, teams led by supportive or neutral coaches exhibited significantly lower injury incidences during regular season play. Additionally, unsupportive coaching was linked to a higher prevalence of chronic injuries compared to the other styles. Overall, the study identifies robust correlations between coaching style, injury type, and occurrence, thereby underscoring the potential impact of leadership behavior on athlete health outcomes in professional football

Scanning Differences between Small-Sided and Full-Sized Games in Elite Youth Footballers

The aim of this study was to compare the scanning activity of elite youth footballers across 7v7, 9v9 and 11v11 game formats. The participants were outfield under 12 footballers (N = 60) born between 1st September 2011 and 31st August 2012 from a Premier League category 1 football academy in the UK. Observational analysis on scan frequency as well as critical scan frequency, the scan situation, the play type and technical action outcomes from the scan were all undertaken. As game formats decreased in player number and pitch size, scanning activity increased. Positional, situational and technical action scanning differences were found between game formats. The most meaningful differences in scan activity across game formats were highlighted during defensive actions and between positions. This study is the first known to explore scanning differences between small-sided and full-sized games, with results suggesting small-sided games may not replicate the scanning situations found in full-sized games. Until further research is conducted, coaches should be aware that small-sided games may influence skill transfer

Combined Exercise Methods in Resistance Training: A Brief Review of Acute Responses and Long-Term Adaptations

The purpose of this article was to review and synthesize the scientific literature on the acute effects and long-term adaptations of combined exercise methods (CEM) compared to traditional strength training (TST), with a focus on performance outcomes, physiological responses, strength gains, and muscle hypertrophy. A literature search was conducted in the PubMed, BIREME/BVS, and Google Scholar databases using the following search terms: ‘strength training’ OR ‘resistance training’ AND ‘paired-set’ OR ‘bi-set’ OR ‘tri-set’ OR ‘superset’ OR ‘agonist-antagonist’, in various combinations with the Boolean operators “OR” and “AND”. Studies published in English that compared the effects of combined exercise training with traditional resistance training, evaluated acute physiological or performance-related responses, and investigated adaptations following a training period were included in this review. A total of 49 studies were included in this review, comprising 40 acute studies and 9 longitudinal studies. These studies evaluated metabolic and hormonal responses, electromyographic activity, performance outcomes, strength gains, and muscle hypertrophy. Overall, the findings suggest that CEM produce similar or, in some cases, superior responses compared to TST across several parameters. Thus, such methods represent a valuable alternative for athletes and individuals with limited time availability, as they can still promote significant training adaptations

The Impact of Practicum Experiences on Preservice Physical Education Teachers’ Self-Efficacy

Within physical education, teachers with high levels of teaching self-efficacy demonstrate positive attitudes toward their profession, adopt innovative instructional strategies, and create engaging learning environments. Supervised practicum plays a crucial role in preparing preservice teachers for professional integration. This study aimed to examine the impact of practicum experiences on preservice physical education teachers’ self-efficacy, particularly in relation to instructional strategies, classroom management, and student engagement. Participants were sixty preservice physical education teachers, from the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece. The Ohio State Teacher Efficacy Scale was used to assess self-efficacy levels, while semi-structured interviews with thirteen participants provided qualitative insights. A mixed-methods approach was used for data analysis. Quantitative findings indicated no statistically significant main effects for questionnaire factors or interactions between time and gender. However, qualitative findings highlighted practicum as a dynamic and transformative experience. Key themes included student engagement, teaching flexibility, student development, emotional intelligence, and perceived changes in teachers’ self-efficacy. Participants reported that their prior coaching experience positively influenced their instructional design and organization. Beyond enhancing teaching effectiveness, practicum reshaped preservice teachers’ perceptions of their professional roles, underscoring its broader impact on teacher development. Future research should explore how different practicum structures and mentoring approaches influence preservice teachers' long-term professional growth and self-efficacy development

Characterizing the Physiological Demands & Serum Cortisol Levels of Thru-Hiking the Continental Divide Trail

The popularity of thru-hiking is expanding within the outdoor recreation industry, drawing attention to the physiological demands of prolonged endurance activities in natural environments. This study examined the effects of a long-distance thru-hike on circadian rhythm regulation, body composition, and physical fitness parameters in two adult subjects who undertook the Continental Divide Trail in 2021. Serum cortisol concentrations were measured in the morning and evening at four time points: pre-hike, mid-hike, post-hike, and 16 weeks post-hike. Physical fitness testing included assessments of body composition, maximal oxygen uptake, and muscular endurance were conducted at pre-hike, post-hike, and 16 weeks post-hike. Both subjects demonstrated significant physiological adaptations, including changes in evening serum cortisol concentrations and alterations in adipose tissue and muscle mass. The female subject showed marked improvements in lower body muscular endurance and maximal oxygen uptake, while the male subject experienced reductions in muscle mass and muscular endurance, while maintaining aerobic capacity. These findings suggest that thru-hiking may influence endocrine function and physical fitness dependent on initial fitness status and individual physiological characteristics. This study highlights the need for further research to better characterize the health impacts of thru-hiking

Reactive Strength Index Modified Differentiates Starters and Non-Starters in Female Volleyball National Team Players

Jumping ability is crucial in volleyball, where both jump height and execution speed significantly influence performance. Previous research has yielded mixed findings on the role of jump force-time characteristics in determining starting status among female volleyball players. This study examined the relationship between countermovement jump (CMJ) force-time metrics and starting status in elite female volleyball players to identify key performance indicators. Nine national team athletes (five starters, four non-starters) performed CMJs on a force platform. Force-time variables from distinct jump phases were analyzed. Reactive strength index modified (RSImod)—the ratio of jump height to time to take-off—was used to assess lower-body explosiveness and reactive strength. Starters demonstrated significantly higher RSImod scores and relative propulsive mean force, indicating superior ability to generate force rapidly. Moderate-to-large effect sizes favoring greater relative strength (force and power normalized to body mass) were observed but were not statistically significant. Reactive strength, as reflected by RSImod, is a key differentiator of starting status in elite female volleyball players. Relative strength also appears to contribute to performance but requires further exploration. Training programs should prioritize lower-body power and reactive strength through targeted plyometric and resistance exercises to enhance volleyball performance

Kinematic Analysis of the Serve Toss and its Impact on Serve Outcome in Competitive and Recreational Tennis Players: A Case Study

The serve toss is crucial for executing a successful and effective serve in tennis. The aim is to determine the relationship between the toss and the success of the flat serve between the female recreational and competitive tennis players. We observed 2 recreational and 8 competitive female tennis players who served 40 flat serves. They were videotaped on a high-speed camera (200Hz) from a side view. We used kinematic data and observed the toss peak and racket-ball contact.  Based on the 2D kinematic analysis, we evaluated the toss peak and the racket-ball contact of the serves: 1) in (good serves) 2) into the net 3) fault-long 4) fault-wide. Recreational players contacted the balls slightly higher and reached slower serve speed compared to competitive players. The competitive players had racket-ball contact about 40 cm closer to the net compared with the recreational players. In addition, the toss variability was bigger for the recreational players. Toss training is very important for players, especially in relation to their own coordination for serving, so it is important to pay a lot of attention to the toss and its practice

Effects of Music and Lyrics on Activity Level and Perceived Enjoyment in Elementary Physical Education

Previous research has indicted that music is a strong motivator while participating in noncompetitive (e.g. walking, running, weightlifting) and competitive (e.g. sprinting, ultramarathon, road cycling) activities as it stimulates positive affective valence, distract exercisers and athletes from exertion and fatigue, and consequently yield greater physical performance. Some of these affective and physical effects have been found in the limited body of empirical research in K-12 physical education (PE) settings. There is also a lack of research regarding the effects of music lyrics, also in comparison with gender and grade, on pupils’ physical and affective responses in PE. Using factorial analysis of variances, this study aimed to examine the effects of music conditions (i.e. music with lyrics, music without lyrics, no music), grade, and gender on the activity level and perceived enjoyment of three kindergarten and three fifth grade classes. Findings revealed significant main effects for music condition, grade, and gender on the physical measures and for gender on the perceived enjoyment. Significant grade × condition interactions were found in the physical measures and significant gender × condition interactions were detected in the perceived enjoyment. One key conclusion indicates that music with lyrics (a) seems to accompany well with activities that require less higher-order thinking skills, and (b) may be a distraction to pupils’ focus when tactics and strategies are involved. Future research in this area is warranted to provide PE teachers with the most motivating music catered to different classes by gender, grade, and activity type

Energy Expenditure of Ecuadorian Students During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Analysis of Group and Individual Responses

This study aimed at determining changes in physical activity (PA) and energy expenditure of Ecuadorian students during the COVID-19 pandemic. A sample of 1033 students completed the short version of the International Physical Activity Questionnaire to estimate energy expenditure in metabolic equivalents of task (MET) in MET·min-1·week-1. Absolute reliability and the smallest worthwhile change (SWC) were computed.  Men reduced vigorous-intensity energy expenditure (p≤ 0.0001; 95%CI diff.= -410.8, -698.6 MET·min-1·week-1) and moderate-intensity (p≤ 0.0001; 95%CI diff.= -283.6, -138.4 MET·min-1·week-1). Walking energy expenditure was higher at the beginning than during the pandemic (p≤ 0.0001; 95%CI diff.= -379.6, -303.0 MET·min-1·week-1). Men and women reduced their total energy expenditure (p≤ 0.0001; Men CI95% diff.= -1311.7, -894.1 MET·min-1·week-1; Women CI95% diff.= -654.0, 290.0 MET·min-1·week-1). Sitting time was lower at baseline than during the pandemic (p≤ 0.0001; 95%CI diff.= 0.48, 0.74 h). The 85.8% of the participants did not change their vigorous energy expenditure, 5.0% increased it, and 9.2% reduced it. The 86.6% of the sample did not change the energy expenditure of moderate intensity, 4.6% increased it, and 8.7% reduced it. Indeed, 84.6% did not change walking energy expenditure, 1.4% increased it, and 14.0% reduced it. The total energy expenditure did not change in 84.2% of the participants, 4.3% increased it, and 11.5% reduced it. The sitting time did not change in 79.3% of the participants, 15.0% increased it, and 5.7% reduced it. In conclusion, the energy expenditure from PA was reduced during the COVID-19 pandemic in Ecuadorian university students. More than 79% of the students maintained their habits, confirming that changing behavior remains challenging. These findings are significant given the deleterious effects of reduced physical activity on cardiometabolic health