Vaccination and disease prevention protocols for pets: A review

Vaccination and disease prevention strategies are essential interventions for maintaining the health of companion animals and reducing the risk of zoonotic disease transmission to humans. The effectiveness of these programs relies on the proper implementation of vaccination protocols, environmental management, parasite control, nutritional support, and owner education. This review summarizes current vaccination protocols and complementary non-vaccination preventive measures for dogs and cats. It outlines the classification of core and non-core vaccines, vaccination schedules for puppies and adult animals, booster recommendations, and factors influencing immunization efficacy. Recent advancements in vaccine development, such as recombinant and mRNA-based technologies, are also discussed for their potential to enhance safety and immunogenicity. Beyond vaccination, this review addresses non-immunization preventive strategies, including kennel hygiene and environmental sanitation, biosecurity in veterinary and boarding facilities, ecto- and endoparasite management, and nutritional approaches to strengthen immune function. Owner education is emphasized as a critical component in improving compliance with vaccination schedules and preventive health practices. The review concludes that integrating vaccination with non-vaccination preventive measures strengthens both individual and herd immunity, reduces the incidence of infectious diseases, and minimizes zoonotic risks. Current challenges include pathogen variation, inconsistent owner compliance, regional disparities in vaccination policies, and the ongoing need for safer and more effective vaccines. Advances in vaccine technology and personalized immunization strategies provide new opportunities to improve the efficacy, safety, and sustainability of pet health programs

The role of Uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC) virulence genes in Urinary Tract Infection (UTI) cases in cats

Urinary Tract Infection (UTI) is a common urogenital disease in cats, with uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC) being the primary cause. UPEC originates from the normal gastrointestinal flora but is opportunistic, possessing the ability to adhere, invade, and persist in the urinary tract, leading to recurrent infections and clinical complications. These infections can range from mild to severe, including dysuria, hematuria, pollakiuria, stranguria, and urinary retention. The prevalence of UTI in cats varies across countries, ranging from 17.5–46.5%, with UPEC being the dominant pathogen. UPEC virulence is determined by genes encoding adhesion factors (fimA, pap, sfa, and csgA), iron acquisition systems (ent, fyuA, and iutA), outer membrane proteins (OmpA), and toxins (hly and cnf1), which support colonization, biofilm formation, invasiveness, and tissue damage. These virulence mechanisms allow the bacteria to survive urinary flow, pH, and host immune defenses, as well as to form intracellular bacterial communities and dormant reservoirs, increasing the risk of persistent and difficult-to-treat infections. In addition to its impact on feline health, UPEC also has zoonotic potential due to its close interaction with humans and the presence of antimicrobial resistance factors. Therefore, identifying UPEC virulence genes is crucial for understanding the pathogenesis of UTIs in cats and anticipating the risk of transmission to humans. This study reviews the scientific evidence regarding the distribution of UPEC virulence genes in cats, their implications for clinical infection, and the urgency of a One Health approach to infection prevention, diagnosis, and control. Understanding UPEC genetics provides the basis for more effective therapeutic strategies, the development of antibacterial interventions, and the mitigation of zoonotic risk

Environmental impact analysis of wastewater from Keudah slaughterhouse in Banda Aceh City

This study aimed to analyze the wastewater impact of Keudah Slaughterhouse in Banda Aceh City based on six parameters: pH, total suspended solids (TSS), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), ammonia, and oil and grease content. Furthermore, the analysis results were measured against wastewater quality standards regulated by the Regulation of the Minister of Environment and Forestry number 5, 2014. This study uses a quantitative descriptive approach that aims to describe the characteristics of wastewater impact based on the determined physical and chemical parameters. To increase data representativeness and control for natural variations that may occur over time, the sampling design was arranged based on a Completely Randomized Block Design, with sampling days as groups. Three different groups of days were randomly selected and on each day three wastewater samples were taken at the outlet point of Keudah Slaughterhouse. The results of this study showed that the COD level with an average value of approximately 277.19 mg/l exceeded the quality standard limit of 200 mg/l. Meanwhile, pH, TSS, BOD, ammonia, and oil and grease did not exceed the quality standard threshold. High COD levels in wastewater indicate high organic matter content and a suboptimal wastewater treatment installation system. The application of anaerobic biofilter systems combined with planted gravel filter technology is suggested as a potential strategy to reduce COD concentrations effectively. Overall, the findings highlight the need for improved wastewater management practices to minimize environmental pollution and promote sustainable resource management

Molecular detection and epidemiological insights of Clostridioides difficile in Egyptian fruit bats

      Clostridioides difficile is a major global cause of antibiotic-associated diarrhea, increasingly recognized as a community- and zoonosis-linked pathogen with widespread environmental and animal reservoirs. Given the ecological overlap between bats, humans, and livestock and the limited data on bats, this study investigated the presence of C. difficile and its toxin genes in Egyptian bats to evaluate their potential role in the transmission cycle. Fifty fruit bats (Rousettus spp.) were captured and identified using standard morphological keys. Intestinal content samples were collected and cultured anaerobically in Cooked Meat Medium. DNA was extracted from isolates, and PCR was performed to detect C. difficile (tpi) and its toxin genes (tcdA, tcdB). C. difficile was detected in 64% of intestinal content samples (32/50), with 16 isolates (32%) identified as toxigenic. Among these, 21.8% were tcdA⁺/tcdB⁻, 15.6% tcdA⁻/tcdB⁺, and 12.5% carried both genes, while 32% of isolates were non-toxigenic. This study provides the first molecular evidence of toxigenic and non-toxigenic C. difficile in Egyptian fruit bats, prominence their potential role as environmental reservoirs. The findings highlight the need for bats investigation to clarify the possible transmission ways within human, animals and  environment

Comparative study on evaluating effects of turmeric (Curcuma longa) and Thyme (Thymus vulgaris) supplementation on growth performance of broiler chickens

Using natural products is now more popular among the poultry industry to help broilers do better and stay healthy. This study aims to measure FI, BWG and FCR to see how turmeric and thyme supplementation affects the growth of broiler chickens. The antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial properties of turmeric (Curcuma longa) and thyme (Thymus vulgaris) were tested to see how they affected body weight gain (BWG), feed intake (FI) and feed conversion ratio (FCR).  This study evaluates the effects of turmeric and thyme supplementation on feed intake, body weight gain, and feed conversion ratio in broiler chickens. Twenty-four day-old broiler chicks were randomly assigned to four treatment groups : Control (P0), Turmeric (P1: 6 g/kg), Thyme (P2: 6 g/kg), and Turmeric + Thyme (P3: 3 g/kg each). Growth parameters were recorded weekly over five weeks. Results showed that the Thyme Group exhibited the highest improvements in FI, BWG, and FCR, followed by the Turmeric + Thyme and Turmeric Group. Statistical analysis was initially conducted using ANOVA and Duncan’s Test with a significance level of 5%. Based on the results, supplementation with turmeric, thyme; and their combination resulted in enhancements in body FI, BWG, FCR when compared to Control Group. Thyme supplementation demonstrated the most pronounced effects on every growth parameter

Impact of heat stress on buffalo production trend and reproductive efficiency in tropical climate and mitigation strategies: A review

Increasing environmental temperatures is one of the extreme conditions resulting from climate change. Temperatures exceeding the thermoneutral zone in livestock can trigger heat stress. This review provides information regarding the effects of heat stress on the productivity and reproduction of buffalo. In tropical countries such as Indonesia, the buffalo species include swamp buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) and river buffalo (Murrah buffalo). Buffalo can tolerate environmental temperatures up to 27.6°C, with an ideal environmental temperature range of 16-24°C. The tropical climate data showed that over the past decade, the temperature increased by approximately 0.8°C annually. If this condition continues it will disrupt the thermoregulatory mechanisms of buffalo, triggering hormonal changes, decreasing milk and meat production, and decreasing reproductive efficiency. Mitigation strategies through cooling methods, the use of sensor-based technology and artificial intelligence, also feed supplementation have shown positive results. Genetic selection and assisted reproductive technology (ART) techniques are promising approaches for increasing the resilience and productivity of buffalo to heat stress. A comprehensive and solution-based scientific approach is essential to achieving sustainable buffalo farming despite the challenges of global climate change

Life inside the cell: A modern review of cellular physiology and molecular regulation

Cell physiology is fundamental to all life processes, as every biological function depends on molecular regulation and organelle dynamics within cells. Advances in technology, such as high-resolution microscopy, multi-omic approaches, and genome engineering, have revealed new complexities in how cells process information, maintain homeostasis, and respond to stress. This review aims to summarize recent developments in the understanding of cell physiology, molecular regulation, and their implications for health and disease. Cell architecture, including eukaryotic compartmentalization and cytoskeletal dynamics, determines the coordination of signal transduction, metabolism, and adaptive responses. Major pathways such as MAPK, PI3K/AKT, NF-κB, and mTOR integrate environmental signals to regulate cell proliferation, differentiation, and survival. Genetic and epigenetic regulation, including transcription factor activity, histone modifications, and ncRNA, provides layered control that ensures precise gene expression. At the protein level, the proteostasis system involving chaperones, proteasomes, and autophagy maintains protein quality and prevents toxic aggregation. The dynamics of organelles, mitochondria, ER, and lysosomes regulate energy, protein folding, and metabolism through complex cross-organelle interactions. Stress responses such as the heat shock response, unfolded protein response, and the NRF2 antioxidant pathway enable cells to adapt to disturbances in homeostasis. The integration of molecular signaling, genetic regulation, proteostasis, and organelle dynamics demonstrates that cell physiology is a highly coordinated regulatory network. Although much progress has been made, the spatio-temporal relationships between pathways and the long-term effects of environmental stress remain important gaps in our knowledge. This understanding opens new avenues for basic research and cell-based therapy development

Antimicrobial potential of essential oils and blue-green Algae against E. coli isolated from diseased broiler

 Enterobacteriaceae have a significant importance as an infectious agent of chickens causing substantial morbidity and mortality in addition to economic losses. In the present work, the prevalence of Enterobacteriaceae was investigated in many broiler chickens farms in Beni-Suef Governorate. One hundred and seventeen samples were obtained aseptically from the affected organs including heart, liver, yolk sac, air sac and pericardium of diseased and recently dead broilers. Collected samples underwent bacteriological investigation, which revealed that 95 isolates were isolated with a percentage of 81.2% including 90 E. coli isolates (76.9%) and 5 Proteus species (4.3%). In-vitro antimicrobial sensitivity test results indicated that E. coli isolates exhibited complete resistance against ciprofloxacin (100%), reduced resistance against enrofloxacin (82%), chloramphenicol (76%), streptomycin (74%), cefotaxime (60%), sulfamethoxazole-trimethoprim and ceftazidime (46% for each), while showed high susceptibility to amikacin (92%), fosfomycin (76%), doxycycline (74%), amoxicillin-clavulanic acid (70%), ertapenem (66%) and colistin (60%). Moreover, multi-drug resistance was determined in 78% of tested isolates. The antibacterial effect of some essential oils (clove, cinnamon, oregano and eucalyptus oil) and blue green algae was evaluated against the growth of MDR E. coli isolates and the results revealed that clove, cinnamon and oregano EOs completely inhibited the growth of all examined E. coli isolates (100%) at concentrations of 1000 ppm, 500 ppm and 250 ppm, respectively. Whereas eucalyptus EO showed no bactericidal effect on all tested E. coli isolates at concentrations up to 1500 ppm. Moreover, blue green algae showed no bactericidal effect on all tested E. coli isolates at concentrations up to 10%. Finally, molecular characterization of resistance and virulence genes declared that all isolates carried blaTEM, sul1, fimH, iss and iutA (100%), while qnrS was detected in 60% of tested isolates

Effect of Piper Betel leaf infusion supplementation on laying quail performance

Over the years, antibiotic growth promotors (AGP) have been utilized in the agricultural sector to enhance cattle productivity. Nevertheless, the utilization of AGP is prohibited in numerous countries due to its detrimental effects on human health, such as antibiotic resistance. Utilizing piper betel leaf extracts can increase the sustainability and serve as a viable substitute for AGP. The objective of this study was to improve quail performances by piper betel leaf supplementation in drinking water. The experiment was conducted using a completely randomized design comprising 7 treatment groups with 3 replications each. This study consisted of 7 different treatments. Treatment T0 involved the supplementation of vitamins since the Day Old Quail (DOQ); Treatments T1 = 10% betel leaf infusions supplementation starting from DOQ; T2 = 20% betel leaf infusions supplementation starting from DOQ; T3 = 30% betel leaf infusions supplementation starting from DOQ; T4 = 10% betel leaf infusions supplementation starting from laying phase; T5 = 20% betel leaf infusions supplementation starting from laying phase; T6 = 30% betel leaf infusions supplementation starting from laying phase. The results indicated that the inclusion of betel leaf infusions (T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, and T6) especially T6 (P < 0.05%) enhance the productivity, performance, and quality of quail eggs (Coturnix coturnix japonica)

Instant extender for buck semen (Inexb): Impact on semen quality and fertility

The preservation of buck semen plays a crucial role in enhancing reproductive biotechnology in small ruminants. This study evaluated the effectiveness of the Instant Extender for Buck Semen (Inexb) supplemented with different concentrations of organic α-tocopherol on semen quality and in vivo fertility. A completely randomized design with ten replications was applied, consisting of four treatments: Tris egg yolk without α-tocopherol (TFF0) and Tris egg yolk supplemented with 5% (TFF5), 7% (TFF7), and 9% (TFF9) α-tocopherol (v/v). Fresh semen was diluted to a final concentration of 150 × 106 spermatozoa/mL and stored at 5°C for 120 hours. Semen quality parameters, including total motility, progressive motility, plasma membrane integrity, and viability, were evaluated at 24-hour intervals. Data were analyzed using ANOVA followed by Duncan’s multiple range test. Results demonstrated that TFF5 and TFF7 maintained significantly higher total motility (44.0 ± 2.2% and 47.2 ± 2.0%) compared with TFF0 and TFF9 after 120 hours (P < 0.05). Similar trends were observed in progressive motility, plasma membrane integrity, and viability, indicating that α-tocopherol at moderate concentrations effectively reduced oxidative damage during liquid storage. In vivo fertility trials revealed that semen extended with TFF7 achieved the highest pregnancy rate (33%) after 120 hours of storage at 5°C. These findings indicate that the inclusion of 5–7% α-tocopherol in Inexb provides optimal antioxidant protection, preserves sperm functionality, and sustains fertility during extended storage. Further optimization of extender formulation is recommended to enhance reproductive efficiency and facilitate wider application in goat artificial insemination programs