Ultrasonic Additive Manufacturing (UAM), or Ultrasonic Consolidation as it is also referred, is a hybrid form of manufacture,
primarily for metal components. The unique nature of the process permits extremely novel functionality to be realised such as
multi-material structures with embedded componentry. UAM has been subject to research and investigation at Loughborough
University since 2001. This paper introduces UAM then details a number of key findings in a number of areas that have been of
particular focus at Loughborough in recent years. These include; the influence of pre-process material texture on interlaminar
bonding, secure fibre positioning through laser machined channels, and freeform electrical circuitry integration

Ross Friel (1248393)

Russell Harris (1250157)

Procedia CIRP

English

Loughborough University Institutional Repository

 Procedia CIRP  6 ( 2013 )  35 – 40 2212-8271 © 2013 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.Selection and/or peer-review under responsibility of Professor Bert Lauwersdoi: 10.1016/j.procir.2013.03.004  The Seventeenth CIRP Conference on Electro Physical and Chemical Machining (ISEM) Ultrasonic additive manufacturing  A hybrid production process for novel functional products R. J. Friela, R.A. Harrisa* a The Wolfson School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, Loughborough University, Loughborough, Leicestershire, UK, LE11 3TU  * Corresponding author: E-mail address: R.A.Harris@lboro.ac.uk. Abstract Ultrasonic Additive Manufacturing (UAM), or Ultrasonic Consolidation as it is also referred, is a hybrid form of manufacture, primarily for metal components. The unique nature of the process permits extremely novel functionality to be realised such as multi-material structures with embedded componentry. UAM has been subject to research and investigation at Loughborough University since 2001. This paper introduces UAM then details a number of key findings in a number of areas that have been of particular focus at Loughborough in recent years. These include; the influence of pre-process material texture on interlaminar bonding, secure fibre positioning through laser machined channels, and freeform electrical circuitry integration.  © 2013 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. Selection and/or peer-review under responsibility of Professor Bert Lauwers  Keywords: Additive Manufacturing, Ultrasonic, Hybrid 1. Introduction Ultrasonic Additive Manufacturing (UAM) is a solid state additive manufacturing process that sequentially bonds metal foils together using ultrasonic metal welding (USW), layer by layer, and integrates Computer Numerical Control (CNC) machining to remove material to create the desired geometry during this additive build-up process (see Figure 1). UAM is therefore a hybrid of additive and subtractive manufacturing as the process incorporates, for example; layer manufacturing and welding, and machining and sometimes laser processing.   This combination of both additive build up by solid-state joining, with simultaneous selective subtractive processing provides a number of unique key manufacturing capabilities. In addition to the freeform geometry available from an additive/subtractive process UAM has the abilities to:  Bond thermally and mechanically dissimilar materials to each other in the solid state (Figure 2).  Figure 1 - Schematic of the UAM Process (1)  Embed sensitive/functional components between the foil layers and bond the structure into a dense metal matrix (Figure 3).    Available online at www.sciencedirect.com© 2013 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V.Selection and/or peer-review under responsibility of Professor Bert LauwersOpen access under CC BY-NC-ND license. Open access under CC BY-NC-ND license. 36   R. J. Friel and R.A. Harris /  Procedia CIRP  6 ( 2013 )  35 – 40   Figure 2  Micrograph showing Al-Cu-Al laminate bonded via UAM (image courtesy of Fabrisonic LLC)  Figure 3 - Image showing UAM embedded single mode optical fibres within an Al matrix There are a number of institutes active in UAM research, primarily situated in the USA, including University of Louisville, Clemson University, The Ohio State University, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, and Edison Welding Institute (EWI). UAM has been researched at Loughborough University since 2001 and a number of recent areas of work are the topic of this paper. This research has included the following areas of work which are overviewed with note to further detail in the accompanying references: 2. Processing window identification and Characterisation Using the Alpha UAM equipment) platform (Figure 4) trailblazing experimental work was carried out to uniquely identify the key process parameter settings (i.e. weld speed (mm/s), weld pressure (KPa), and sonotrode oscillation amplitude (μm)) that resulted in the successful solid state bonding of multi-layered aluminium alloy structures (2).   Figure 4 - The Alpha Ultrasonic Additive Manufacturing System 3. Interlaminar Bond Interface Quantification Through the extensive experimental research work carried out by Loughborough a method was devised to quantifying the bond between foil layers during the UAM process, termed the Linear Weld Density (LWD) (3). This method of analysis involved cross-sectioning UAM samples, mounting, polishing and then microscopically analysing the samples to measure any level of porosity within the bond interface. This porosity was calculated via the LWD equation (Lb is the bonded length of the sample and Lc is the total bond interface length).   100(%)LcLbLWD   This quantification of the bond interface was also evaluated via the use of mechanical peel testing that was performed via the use of tensile testing equipment. These techniques were pertinent in providing analysis methods to drive forward the study 37 R. J. Friel and R.A. Harris /  Procedia CIRP  6 ( 2013 )  35 – 40 of bond integrity and continue to be used by researchers in multiple institutions.  4. Object Embedding into Metal Matrices effect specific to ultrasonic bonding that causes low temperature high plastic flow) that occurs during ultrasonic processing of metal materials (4) it was found that objects could be embedded between the foil layers during the UAM process (5). This work led to the embedding of active elements such as Shape Memory Alloys (SMA) for actuation, and optical fibres for signalling and condition monitoring, and passive elements such as Silicon Carbide (SiC) fibres for structural reinforcement (6) (7).    Figure 5 - Example of an Embedded Shape Memory Alloy Fibre in an Aluminium Alloy Matrix (8) By embedding these objects it was demonstrated that, due to the matrix compliance and relatively low processing temperature (typically <50% of the metal melt temperature (9) (10)), the UAM process was highly suited to the manufacture of high tech metal matrix composites with the valuable absence of high temperatures and/or pressures. 5. Sonotrode Texture Importance The sonotrode of the UAM equipment has an Electro Discharge Machined (EDM) surface that is used to ensure coupling between the metal foil surface and the tool (sonotrode) during the material processing. The importance of this texture was initially identified through the use of a smoother sonotrode surface that had occurred due to wear. It was found that this wear resulted in a reduced bond interface strength (evaluated via peel testing) and a reduced LWD (11) which has widespread implications for the industrial use of UAM and other ultrasonic bonding processes. 6. Plastic Flow and Work Hardening during UAM Investigation into the flow of the matrix material around embedded SiC fibres and the hardening of the matrix material (Figure 6) was performed using polarised light optical microscopy and micro-indentation equipment. This work highlighted the grain structure deformation caused by the fibre embedding and the resultant localised work hardening that was caused by the embedding process (12).   Figure 6 - Microscopy Highlighting Matrix Plastic Flow (A) and Microhardness Testing of Matrix Post-UAM (B) (12) 7. Interlaminar Sub-Grain Refinement Using Dual Beam Focussed Ion Beam (DBFIB) analysis of the foil to foil interface, post UAM (Figure 7), it was identified that the sonotrode was causing sub-grain refinement in a highly localised area at the foil to foil interface and that this mechanism was resulting in a complex residual microstructure within the matrix (13) (14). The nature of these grain structures is of particular interest to a wide number of industries and their study continues to be of significant focus.  38   R. J. Friel and R.A. Harris /  Procedia CIRP  6 ( 2013 )  35 – 40   Figure 7 - DBFIB Image of Sub-Grain Refinement and Plastic Flow at the Bond Interface in a UAM Component (13) 8. Imparted Topology Further work into the effects of the sonotrode texture identified that it was not only the sonotrode texture directly that was important for the UAM process. Using white light interferometry, peel testing, optical microscopy and LWD measurements researchers at Loughborough were able to identify that a key factor for the UAM process was the change in Interlaminar foil surface topology that was induced by the sonotrode contact (Figure 8). This topology change was found to be dependent on the sonotrode surface texture but also the process parameters that were used during the UAM process (15). 9. Sub-Grain Refinement due to Fibre Embedding Through DBFIB analysis of the matrix around UAM embedded fibres it was uniquely identified that the embedding of objects into metal matrices via the UAM process results in sub-grain refinement that is similar to that induced by the sonotrode to foil contact (Figure 9) (16).  10. Current UAM Work at Loughborough University Current work at Loughborough University into UAM has involved a number of key research focuses to maximise the potential of UAM. These include the detailed analysis of surface topography in UAM and the effects on interlaminar bonding (Figure 10), the use of a laser to create channels onto a UC sample surface for secure fibre placement and maximised matrix plastic flow (Figure 11), and the freeform printing of embedded electrical circuitry (Figures 13 and 14). 11. Interlaminar Bonding in UAM By using sonotrodes of varying surface textures and by using a full range of UAM processing parameters a detailed ANOVA study was performed. The process parameters were related to the surface texture and the effect that this had on the resultant peel strength and LWD of the UAM samples. The surfaces of the sonotrode and samples were measured for a range of surface parameters using white light interferometry.   Figure 8 - White Light Interferometry and Optical Microscopy Showing the Foil Topology Change Caused by Two Different Sonotorde Textures (a = rougher, b = smoother)  Figure 9 - Images Showing the Sub-Grain Refinement of the Matrix around UAM Embedded Fibres (a = DBFIB above the fibre, b = SEM above the fibre) (16) 39 R. J. Friel and R.A. Harris /  Procedia CIRP  6 ( 2013 )  35 – 40 Figure 10 - Microscopic Detailed Analysis of the Interlaminar UAMSurface (15)This detailed analysis led to new insight into theimportance and effect of the sonotrode and thus foilsurface topology for the UAM process. The key findings were:The most important factors for bond strength arethe Sa of the sonotrode, the sonotrode amplitudeand the weld pressure (Sa is > amplitude > weldpressure)Between the ranges measured in the study theweld speed was not found to be significant for UAMThe sonotrode weld surface texture features of amplitude (Sa), spacing (Sal) and shape (Sku)emerged as the most influential factors thatappear to effect interlaminar porosity and bondstrength in UC.12. Laser Channelling in UAMThe use of a fiber laser for channelling was shownto be successful for the creation of secure placementchannels and should features to aid accurate placementand positioning of fibre embedding in UAM (Figures11 and 12).Figure 11 - Schematic of the use of a Laser for Secure Fibre Postioning and Reduced PLastic Flow Requirements in UAMUsing optical microscopy, white lightinterferometry and EDAX the full effects of the laserprocessing on the UAM surfaces was characterised. The key findings of the work were:That using a multi-pass lasing technique allowsfor a smoother channel surface that moreaccurately follows a Gaussian profile.Figure 12 - Schematic of the Integration of Functional ElectricalCircuitry into UAM Components via Inkjet PrintingThat it is possible to create channels that are adiameter matching to the intended fibres that willbe embedded.That by using a carefully controlled gas flow rateduring laser processing shoulder features can becreated which would reduce the need for plasticflow around the fibres during UAM embedding.However, this should feature is difficult toproduce symmetrically and usually has a bias toFeither side of the channel.Through the use of multiple laser passes aprogressive Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) is createdthat results in an elemental compositional changein the UAM material.13. Freeform Printing of Embedded ElectricalCircuitryFurther work into UAM at LoughboroughUniversity has begun to focus on further increasing thefunctionality of UAM parts through the freeform integration of functional electrical circuitry during theUAM process (Figure 12). This work is being carriedout in conjunction with industrial partners.By printing the electrically conductive componentsand the insulating materials as an appropriate constructdirectly onto the UAM samples it has been possible to40   R. J. Friel and R.A. Harris /  Procedia CIRP  6 ( 2013 )  35 – 40  embed these electronics, while retaining the functional construct, via the UAM process (Figure 13). Further work will investigate the optimisation of the embedding process via the use of mechanical and microscopic analysis. The second major stage of the project will involve investigating the integration of the electrical circuitry in a further 3D manner (i.e. in the z axis, perpendicular to the layup process).   Figure 13  Cross section of UAM Sample showing Embedded Functional Printed Electrical Circuitry 14. Summary Since 2001 multiple research projects into UAM have been performed by Loughborough University. This research has led to many important findings and valuable work to helping maximise the potential of the UAM process. The key areas of research have been:   Process fundamentals for ensuring quality of bonding is maximised and that this is monitored through suitable techniques such as peel testing and LWD.  Fibre embedding of multiple different types.  Fibre-Matrix investigations into the micro and nano structural effects of the ultrasonic processing on interlaminar bonding and object embedding during UAM using analysis techniques such as SEM and DBFIB.  Topology effects both in terms of the sonotrode and process parameters have been studied via the use of white light interferometry and ANOVA studies.  Improving the application and functionality of UAM has and is continuing to be researched through the integration of functional, printed, electrical circuitry.  Research into UAM at Loughborough University is continuing and expanding. Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank the support of the EPSRC in UAM research at Loughborough University. References 1. Field Repair and Replacement Part Fabrication of Military Components using Ultrasonic Consolidation Cold Metal Deposition. Schwope, L-A., et al., et al. Bonn : NATO, 2009, October 19-22. NATO RTO-MP-AVT-163 Additive Technology for the Repair of Military Hardware. p. Paper 22. .. 2. Optimum process parameters for ultrasonic consolidation of 3003 aluminium. Kong, C.Y., Soar, R.C. and Dickens, P.M. 2, Loughborough : Elsevier, 28 February 2004, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, Vol. 146, pp. 181-187. 3. A model for weld strength in ultrasonically consolidated components. Kong, C.Y., Soar, R.C. and Dickens, P.M. 1, Loughborough : Professional Engineering Publishing, January 2005, Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part C: Journal of Mechanical Engineering Science, Vol. 219, pp. 83-91. 4. Effects of ultrasound on deformation characteristics of metals. Langenecker, B. . : IEEE, 1966, EEE Transactions on Sonics and Ultrasonics, Vol. 13. ISSN: 0018-9537. 5. ''Fabrication of metal-matrix composites and adaptive composites using ultrasonic consolidation process. Kong, C.Y. and Soar, R.C. 1-2, Loughborough : Elsevier, 5 December 2005, Materials Science and Engineering: A, Vol. 412, pp. 12-18. 6. Kong, C.Y. Investigation of ultrasonic consolidation for embedding active/passive fibres in aluminium matrices. Wolfson School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, Loughborough University, UK. 2005. PhD Thesis. 7. Characterization of Process for Embedding SiC Fibers in Al 6061 O Matrix Through Ultrasonic Consolidation. Li, D., Soar, R.C. 2, 2009, Journal of Engineering Materials and Technology, Vol. 131, p. 021016. ISSN: 0094-4289. 8. Friel, R.J. Investigating the Effect of Ultrasonic Consolidation on Shape Memory Alloy Fibres. Wolfson School, Loughbrough University, UK. 2011. Thesis. .. 9. Ultrasonic Welding. Jones, J.B. and Powers Jr., J.J. ., . : American Welding Society, 1956, The Welding Journal, Vol. 35, pp. 761-766. ISSN: 0043-2296. 10. de Vries, E. Mechanics and Mechanisms of Ultrasonic Metal Welding. Ohio : Ohio State University, 2004. PhD Thesis. .. 11. Influence of sonotrode texture on the performance of an ultrasonic consolidation machine and the interfacial bond strength. Li, D. and Soar, R. 4, . : Elsevier Inc., February 2009, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, Vol. 209, pp. 1627-1634. ISSN: 0924-0136. 12. Plastic flow and work hardening of Al alloy matrices during ultrasonic consolidation fibre embedding process. Li, D. and Soar, R.C. 1-2, . : Elsevier Inc., 2008, Materials Science and Engineering: A, Vol. 498, pp. 421-429. ISSN: 0921-5093. 13. Johnson, K. Interlaminar subgrain refinement in ultrasonic consolidation. Wolfson School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, Loughborough University, UK. 2008. PhD Thesis. 14. New discoveries in ultrasonic consolidation nano-structures using emerging analysis techniques. Johnson, K, et al., et al. 4, . : SAGE Publications, 2011, Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. L J. Mater. Des. Appl., Vol. 225, pp. 277-287. ISSN: 2041-3076. 15. The effect of interface topography for ultrasonic consolidation of aluminium. Friel, R.J., et al., et al. 16-17, . : Elsevier Inc., 2010, Materials Science and Engineering: A, Vol. 527, pp. 4474-4483. ISSN: 0921-5093. 16. A nanometre-scale fibre-to-matrix interface characterization of an ultrasonically consolidated metal matrix composite. Friel, R.J. and Harris, R.A. 1, . : Sage Publications, 2010, Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part L: Journal of Materials: Design and Applications, Vol. 224, pp. 31-40. ISSN: 2041-3076. 

Ultrasonic additive manufacturing - a hybrid production process for novel functional products

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Ultrasonic additive manufacturing - a hybrid production process for novel functional products

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