Time perception deficits represent an aspect of cognitive malfunctioning shared by developmental disorders, which otherwise seem distinct with respect to their individual primary symptom clusters, such as autism spectrum disorders (ASD) and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Multiple impairments of social interaction, communication, and restricted interests constitute the diagnostic criteria for ASD, whereas behavioral symptoms of ADHD comprise inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity (DSM-IV-TR; American Psychiatric Association, 2000). Both ASD and ADHD are additionally associate

Christine M. Falter

Valdas eNoreika

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Interval Timing Deficits and Abnormal Cognitive Development

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INTEGRATIVE NEUROSCIENCE
mance even for relatively small sample sizes 
(Szelag et al., 2004). Thus, in spite of the 
lack of universality of interval timing defi-
cits, the increased incidence rate needs to be 
explained. Moreover, it has been suggested 
that ADHD and ASD share some suscep-
tibility genes (Castellanos and Tannock, 
2002), which makes it likely that some 
dysfunctions are shared between them or 
their subtypes. We propose that the focus 
of research needs to be on the association 
of interval timing abnormalities and other 
functional deficits. For instance, although 
a Theory of Mind deficit can hamper the 
understanding of social situations in its own 
right, an additional interval timing deficit 
could result in a lack of precise perception 
of temporal cues of eye gaze, and thereby 
increase misinterpretations of social situ-
ations. It has been proposed that different 
symptoms can be independent dimensions 
of impairment, which nevertheless interact 
with and modulate one another, leading to 
the characteristic phenomenology of an 
individual with a developmental disorder 
(Happe et al., 2006). In this line of thought, 
interval timing abnormalities might inter-
act with primary dysfunctions.
In fact, several ADHD studies confirmed 
significant associations between duration 
perception and other cognitive functions. 
Toplak and Tannock (2005) reported sig-
nificant correlations between time discrim-
ination thresholds and working memory 
measures in participants with ADHD, but 
not in healthy individuals. Rubia and col-
leagues argued persuasively that the pri-
mary ADHD symptom of impulsiveness 
is based on poor inhibition and attention 
functions, as well as on poor interval tim-
ing (Rubia, 2002; Rubia et al., 2009). Even 
though interaction between interval tim-
ing and other cognitive functions is much 
less investigated in ASD than in ADHD, 
preliminary findings show  significant 
correlation between timing measures in 
a temporal bisection task and primary 
ASD symptoms in the language and com-
munication domain (Allman et al., 2011). 
option would be that abnormal interval 
timing could be an epiphenomenon of 
developmental disorders without bearing 
a causal relationship to other symptoms.
The idea of an ontogenetic causal relation-
ship raises the question of why the phenom-
enological outcomes of the disorders differ 
so strongly. The apparent lack of specificity 
of interval timing deficits to ASD and ADHD 
raises the question of their explanatory rel-
evance for the ontogenesis of a particular 
developmental disorder. A further challenge 
for the causality assumption is the lack of uni-
versality of interval timing abnormalities. A 
few studies report null findings (Wallace and 
Happe, 2008; Jones et al., 2009), and in studies 
showing group differences not all individu-
als with ASD or ADHD perform atypically. 
Indeed, the range of reproduced time inter-
vals can be quite variable and the variability is 
often increased in ASD and ADHD compared 
to typically developing controls (Toplak et al., 
2003; Martin et al., 2010). At the current stage 
of knowledge, therefore, it seems premature 
to suggest that interval timing abnormalities 
can be the sole ontogenetic cause of ASD or 
ADHD.
Nevertheless, before we discard any 
causal account in favor of the alternative 
view of interval timing as a mere epiphe-
nomenon of atypical cognitive develop-
ment, we suggest that a more associative 
view of the role of interval timing in cog-
nitive development be adopted. Indeed, 
there is strong evidence for the association 
between temporal processing and other 
typical cognitive functions such as social 
cognition (Trevarthen and Daniel, 2005; 
Striano et al., 2006), language processing 
(Tallal et al., 1993), and understanding of 
causality (Freeman, 2008). Therefore, it is 
difficult to conceive how an impairment 
of interval timing would have no relevance 
for developmental disorders, which show 
deficits in cognitive functions relying on 
accurate timing. Furthermore, the inci-
dence of interval timing abnormalities 
is increased in developmental disorders, 
as shown by group  differences in perfor-
Time perception deficits represent an 
aspect of cognitive malfunctioning shared 
by developmental disorders, which oth-
erwise seem distinct with respect to their 
individual primary symptom clusters, such 
as autism spectrum disorders (ASD) and 
attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder 
(ADHD). Multiple impairments of social 
interaction, communication, and restricted 
interests constitute the diagnostic criteria 
for ASD, whereas behavioral symptoms of 
ADHD comprise inattention, hyperactivity, 
and impulsivity (DSM-IV-TR; American 
Psychiatric Association, 2000). Both ASD 
and ADHD are additionally associated 
with non-diagnostic secondary symptoms 
in perception and cognition. A secondary 
symptom observed in both ASD and ADHD 
is abnormal interval timing, i.e., processing 
of stimulus duration (for a review see Falter 
and Noreika, accepted). For instance, it has 
been reported that reproduction of auditory 
and visual intervals of 1–5.5 s was impaired 
in individuals with ASD (Szelag et al., 2004). 
Similarly, Barkley et al. (2001) found that 
individuals with ADHD were impaired in 
reproducing intervals of 2–60 s.
It is difficult to assess whether secondary 
symptoms in general and interval timing 
abnormalities in particular play a causal 
role in developmental disorders. There are 
several possible relationships. First, a direct 
causal relationship would characterize a case 
in which impairment of an interval timing 
system could directly disrupt (otherwise 
possibly unimpaired) cognitive functions 
relying on accurate timing information, 
resulting in the known primary symptoms. 
Although such a direct causal relationship 
might be found in adult neuropsychology, 
it is not applicable to the study of devel-
opmental disorders, which are character-
ized by atypical neurogenetic pathways of 
cognitive development. Rather, as a second 
option, an ontogenetic causal relationship 
is conceivable in which an impaired interval 
timing system could affect the development 
of all processes downstream, which rely on 
accurate timing information. Finally, a third 
Interval timing deficits and abnormal cognitive development
Christine M. Falter1* and Valdas Noreika1,2
1 Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
2 Department of Psychology, Centre for Cognitive Neuroscience, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
*Correspondence: christine.falter@psych.ox.ac.uk
Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience www.frontiersin.org June 2011 | Volume 5 | Article 26 | 1
OpiniOn Article
published: 13 June 2011
doi: 10.3389/fnint.2011.00026
Striano, T., Henning, A., and Stahl, D. (2006). Sensitivity 
to interpersonal timing at 3 and 6 months of age. 
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Szelag, E., Kowalska, J., Galkowski, T., and Pöppel, E. 
(2004). Temporal processing deficits in high-function-
ing children with autism. Br. J. Psychol. 95, 269–282.
Tallal, P., Miller, S., and Fitch, R. H. (1993). Neurobiological 
basis of speech: a case for the preeminence of temporal 
processing. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 14, 27–47.
Toplak, M. E., Rucklidge, J. J., Hetherington, R., John, 
S. C. F., and Tannock, R. (2003). Time perception 
deficits in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and 
comorbid reading difficulties in child and adolescent 
samples. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 44, 888–903.
Toplak, M. E., and Tannock, R. (2005). Time perception: 
modality and duration effects in attention-deficit/
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Trevarthen, C., and Daniel, S. (2005). Disorganized 
rhythm and synchrony: early signs of autism and Rett 
syndrome. Brain Dev. 27(Suppl. 1), 25–34.
Wallace, G. L., and Happe, F. (2008). Time perception in 
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2, 447–455.
Received: 31 May 2011; accepted: 03 June 2011; published 
online: 13 June 2011.
Citation: Falter CM and Noreika V (2011) Interval timing 
deficits and abnormal cognitive development. Front. Integr. 
Neurosci. 5:26. doi: 10.3389/fnint.2011.00026
Copyright © 2011 Falter and Noreika. This is an open-access 
article subject to a non-exclusive license between the authors 
and Frontiers Media SA, which permits use, distribution 
and reproduction in other forums, provided the original 
authors and source are credited and other Frontiers condi-
tions are complied with.
Barkley, R. A., Murphy, K. R., and Bush, T. (2001). 
Time processing and reproduction in young 
adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. 
Neuropsychology 15, 351–360.
Castellanos, F. X., and Tannock, R. (2002). Neuroscience 
of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: the 
search for endophenotypes. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 3, 
617–628.
Freeman, W. J. (2008). Perception of time and causation 
through the kinesthesia of intentional action. Integr. 
Psychol. Behav. Sci. 42, 137–143.
Happe, F., Ronald, A., and Plomin, R. (2006). Time to give 
up on a single explanation for autism. Nat. Neurosci. 
9, 1218–1220.
Jones, C. R. G., Happé, F., Baird, G., Simonoff, E., 
Marsden, A. J. S., Tregay, J., Phillips, R. J., Goswami, 
U., Thomson, J. M., and Charman, T. (2009). Auditory 
discrimination and auditory sensory behaviours in 
autism spectrum disorders. Neuropsychologia 47, 
2850–2858.
Martin, J. S., Poirier, M., and Bowler, D. M. (2010). Brief 
report: impaired temporal reproduction performance 
in adults with autism spectrum disorder. J. Autism 
Dev. Disord. 40, 640–646.
Rubia, K. (2002). The dynamic approach to neurode-
velopmental psychiatric disorders: Use of fMRI 
combined with neuropsychology to elucidate the 
dynamics of psychiatric disorders, exemplified in 
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Rubia, K., Halari, R., Christakou, A., and Taylor, E. (2009). 
Impulsiveness as a timing disturbance: neurocognitive 
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Taken together, these reports demonstrate 
complex associations between abnormally 
developing cognitive functions, and suggest 
that interval timing might play an impor-
tant yet under-investigated role in develop-
mental disorders by interacting with and 
modulating primary symptoms.
Acknowledgments
Christine M. Falter is supported by the 
German Research Council and the Baily 
Thomas Charitable Fund. Valdas Noreika 
is supported by the Academy of Finland, the 
Signe and Ane Gyllenberg Foundation, and 
the National Graduate School of Psychology 
in Finland. The collaboration between 
Christine M. Falter and Valdas Noreika is 
supported by a European Cooperation in 
Science and Technology (COST) action 
on Time in Mental Activity (TIMELY; 
TD0904).
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American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and 
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th Edn. – Test 
Revision (DSM-IV-TR). Washington, DC: American 
Psychiatric Association.
Falter and Noreika Interval timing and developmental disorders
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