Bolkcom, Christopher

Bruner, Edward F.

O'Rourke, Ronald

UNT Digital Library

Congressional Research Service ˜ The Library of CongressCRS Report for CongressReceived through the CRS WebOrder Code RS21048Updated May 23, 2002Special Operations Forces in OperationEnduring Freedom: Background and Issuesfor CongressEdward F. Bruner, Christopher Bolkcom, and Ronald O’RourkeForeign Affairs, Defense, and Trade DivisionSummarySpecial Operations Forces (SOF) are elite, specialized military units that can beinserted behind the lines to conduct a variety of operations, many of them clandestine.U.S. and allied SOF units have played a significant role in U.S. military operations inAfghanistan and other countries as part of Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF), the U.S.military campaign against terrorists.  This short report provides background informationand issues for Congress on U.S. SOF forces and their role in OEF.  It will be updatedas events warrant.BackgroundOverview.  Special Operations Forces (SOF) are elite military units that, in thewords of DoD, are characterized by “combinations of specialized personnel, equipment,training and tactics that go beyond the routine capabilities of conventional militaryforces.”  SOF units can be inserted behind the lines through land, sea, or air to conducta variety of operations, many of them clandestine.  SOF personnel are carefully selectedand undergo highly demanding training.  U.S. SOF units total roughly 45,000 active andreserve personnel in the Army, Navy, and Air Force, or about 2% of all U.S. active andreserve forces.  The U.S. Special Operations Command (USSOCOM) – a unifiedcommand – oversees the training, doctrine, and equipping of all U.S. SOF units.U.S. SOF Operations in OEF.  U.S. SOF units have played a significant role inU.S. military counterterrorism operations Afghanistan and other countries. For the firstseveral weeks of the war in Afghanistan, U.S. SOF units accounted for most of the U.S.military ground-forces presence in the country.  At various points in the war, U.S. SOFunits worked closely with leaders of local anti-Taliban/anti-al Qaeda forces, designatedtargets for U.S. bombers and strike aircraft armed with precision-guided munitions(PGMs), led or participated in joint U.S.-Afghan ground-attack operations against Talibanand al Qaeda forces (including some well-publicized horse-mounted cavalry charges),engaged in unilateral combat operations against Taliban and al Qaeda forces, interdictedTaliban and al Qaeda convoys, and searched caves and tunnels for Taliban and al Qaedafighters, equipment, supplies, and intelligence.  U.S. SOF forces were joined in many ofCRS-21 For more on transformation of U.S. military forces, see CRS Report RS20787, ArmyTransformation and Modernization: Overview and Issues for Congress, by Edward F. Bruner;CRS Report RS20859, Air Force Transformation: Background and Issues for Congress, byChristopher Bolkcom; and CRS Report RS20851, Naval Transformation: Background and Issuesfor Congress, by Ronald O’Rourke. these operations by SOF forces from Britain and (particularly in later stages) other alliedcountries, such as Canada, Australia, and Germany.  On April 25, 2002, the WashingtonPost reported that U.S. SOF forces were conducting clandestine operations in Pakistanto seek out and attack Taliban and al Qaeda fighters who fled there from Afghanistan.The combination of U.S. SOF forces on the ground and U.S. aircraft armed withPGMs flying overhead has been characterized by many observers as a creative andrevolutionary form of warfare and given much of the credit for the rapid collapse ofTaliban control over Afghanistan.  DoD leaders and some other observers view the SOF-aircraft combination, and the effective use of U.S. SOF forces in general, as a validationof proposals for carrying out a transformation of U.S. military forces.1U.S. SOF forces are also being used as part of the U.S. counterterrorist effort in othercountries, such as the Philippines.  U.S. SOF activities in these other countries includetraining local forces in counterinsurgency techniques – a role that U.S. SOF forces havetraditionally played in many countries over the years.Funding.  USSOCOM is the only unified command in the Department of Defense(DoD) that is directly responsible for determining its own force structure and relatedmaterial and funding requirements.  The dedicated FY2002 budget for USSOCOM is$3.97 billion, or a bit more than 1% of the total FY2002 defense budget.  This figureincludes some additional funds for USSOCOM that were included in the EmergencyTerrorism Response supplemental appropriations act (P.L. 107-38 of September 18,2001).  It does not, however, include additional FY2002 funds for USSOCOM that arerequested as part of the FY2002 emergency supplemental appropriations bill that wassubmitted to Congress in March 2002.For FY2003, the Administration is requesting $5.26 billion for USSOCOM – a32.5% increase over the FY2002 figure above.  This FY2003 requested figure does notinclude additional FY2003 funding requested for USSOCOM in the Defense EmergencyResponse Fund (DERF) – a “second” part of the FY2003 defense budget request totalingroughly $20 billion that was not rolled into the totals shown for the “regular” part of theFY2003 defense budget request.  Funds for USSOCOM requested in the DERF include,among other things, $60 million to convert two C-130H cargo planes into AC-130Ugunships.  Much of the increase in funding requested for USSOCOM for FY2003 is forincreased counterterrorism activities.SOF Capabilities.  Special operations forces and predecessor U.S. units haveplayed a role in most U.S. conflicts.  Congress noted in 1985 that SOF provide the UnitedCRS-32 Current authorities and definitions for SOF are found in Title 10, United States Code, Section167.  The statement of SOF importance to counter-terrorism was made in P.L. 99-145; 99Stat.760.States an “immediate and primary capability to respond to terrorism.”2  Specific U.S. SOFcapabilities include the following:! Direct Action.  Short-duration, small-scale offensive actions such asraids, ambushes, hostage rescues, and “surgical strikes.”! Strategic (Special) Reconnaissance. Clandestine operations in hostileterritory to gain significant information.! Unconventional Warfare.  Advising and supporting indigenousinsurgent and resistance groups operating in the territory of a commonenemy. (For example, the Northern Alliance in Afghanistan.)! Foreign Internal Defense.  Assisting host nation military capabilities toforestall or defeat insurgent activities.! Civil Affairs.  Promoting civil-military cooperation between U.S.military forces and the foreign governments and populations within theirarea of operations.! Psychological Operations.  Influencing the attitudes and behavior ofrelevant populations to assist in accomplishing security missions.! Counterterrorism (CT).  Operations conducted by Special MissionUnits to resolve or preempt terrorist incidents abroad and activities toassist or work with other CT-designated agencies in the United States.! Humanitarian Assistance.  Providing various rudimentary services toforeign populations in adverse circumstances.! Theater Search and Rescue.  Finding and recovering pilots and aircrews downed on land or sea outside the United States, sometimes incombat or clandestine situations.! Such other activities as may be specified by the President or Secretary ofDefense.Command Structures.  Congress in 1986 expressed particular concern for thestatus of SOF within overall U.S. defense planning and consequently legislated measuresto strengthen their position.  These actions included the establishment of USSOCOM asa new unified command.  The Commander in Chief of USSOCOM, or CINCSOC, is afour-star General or Admiral who may be from any service.  USSOCOM is headquarteredat MacDill Air Force Base in Tampa, FL.  CINCSOC reports directly to the Secretary ofDefense, although an Assistant Secretary of Defense for Special Operations and LowIntensity Conflict (SO/LIC) provides immediate civilian oversight over many ofUSSOCOM activities.  Although CINCSOC may command SOF operations anywhere –when specifically directed by the Secretary of Defense –  it is more normal for CINCSOCto organize and provide SOF to fight under the command of a regional CINC.U.S. military operations in and around Afghanistan are conducted by the U.S.Central Command (USCENTCOM).  CINCCENT, whose primary headquarterscoincidentally is also at MacDill AFB, has a permanent SOF subordinate command.   Thiscommand, known as SOCCENT, would plan for, coordinate use of, and command allSOF forces provided to CINCCENT by CINCSOC.  Most SOF units have trained withSOF units from other services.CRS-43 Information about current Army SOF was taken from an article by Lieutenant General Bryan(Doug) Brown, “U.S. Army Special Operations: Focusing on People – Humans are MoreImportant than Hardware,” Army, October 2001, pp. 157-162.4 For additional information on Air Force SOF units, see Wall, Robert.  Conflict Could TestSpecial Ops Improvements.  Aviation Week & Space Technology, October 1, 2001: 30.Army Special Operations Forces.3  U.S. Army SOF (ARSOF) include 26,000soldiers from the Active Army, National Guard, and Army Reserve who are organizedinto Special Forces units, Rangers units, special operations aviation units, civil affairsunits, psychological operations units, and special operations support units.  ARSOFHeadquarters and other resources, such as the John F. Kennedy Special Warfare Centerand School, are located at Fort Bragg, NC.  Five active Special Forces Groups (Airborne) are stationed at Fort Bragg and at FortLewis, WA, Fort Campbell, KY, and Fort Carson, CO.  Special Forces soldiers – alsoknown as the Green Berets – are trained in various skills, including foreign languages,that allow teams to operate independently in designated regions of the world.  Two ArmyNational Guard SF groups are headquartered in Utah and Alabama.  An elite lightinfantry, airborne combat force, the 75th Ranger Regiment, is at Fort Benning, GA.Army special operations aviation units feature pilots trained to fly the mostsophisticated Army rotary-wing aircraft in the toughest environments, day or night.  The160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment (Airborne) is stationed at Fort Campbell,KY.  The regiment’s aircraft include MH47-E, MH60-L, and MH-6M helicopters.The most frequently deployed SOF assets are civil affairs (CA) units, which provideexperts in every area of civil government to help insure that the administration of civilianaffairs in the theater poses a minimum hindrance to U.S. military objectives.  The 96thCivil Affairs Battalion (Airborne) is the only active CA unit; all other CA units reside infour Army Reserve Civil Affairs Commands located in Pensacola, FL, Mountain View,CA, Riverdale, MD, and Bronx, NY.  Psychological operations units providecommunications to large foreign audiences through mass media.  Soldiers must havetechnical and language skills paired with knowledge of regional cultures.  The 4thPsychological Operations Group (Airborne) is stationed at Fort Bragg, and two ArmyReserve groups are located in Cleveland, OH, and at Moffett Federal Airfield, CA.Finally, Fort Bragg is also home to specialized supporting units and Special MissionUnits that support a variety of ARSOF and joint missions.  Notable among these is the 1stSpecial Forces Operational Detachment-Delta, often called Delta Force, which  reportedlyis based at Fort Bragg and trained specifically for counterterrorism missions, includinghostage-rescue and snatch-and-grab operations.Air Force Special Operations Forces.4  The Air Force Special OperationsCommand (AFSOC) includes about 10,000 active and reserve personnel, of which about22% are stationed overseas.  AFSOC is headquartered at Hurlburt Field, FL, which is alsothe home of most of AFSOC’s active units, including the 16th Special Operations Wing,the 720th Special Tactics Group, the 18th Flight Test Squadron, and the U.S. Air ForceSpecial Operations School. The 352nd Special Operations Group is at  RAF Mildenhall,England, and the 353rd Special Operations Group, is at Kadena Air Base, Japan.CRS-55 Sources for information in this section: Waterborne Commandos.  Armed Forces JournalInternational, January 2000: 31-33 (an interview with Rear Admiral Eric T. Olson, Commander,U.S. Naval Special Warfare Command); Gourley, Scott R.  Setting The Seal On Maritime SpecialOperations Forces.  Jane’s Navy International, June 1999: 18-21, 23.  See also, Worthington,George.  Whither Naval Special Warfare?  U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings, January 1996: 61-63; Nolan, Mary I.  Warriors Who Come From the Sea. Sea Power, February 1995: 38-40;Waller, Douglas C.  Hell Week.  Newsweek, January 10, 1994: 28-33.Reserve AFSOC components include the 193rd Special Operations Wing, AirNational Guard stationed at Harrisburg, PA, the 280th Combat CommunicationsSquadron, Air National Guard stationed at Dothan, AL., and the 919th Special OperationsWing, Air Force Reserve stationed at Duke Field, FL.AFSOC units are trained for direct action, unconventional warfare, specialreconnaissance, foreign internal defense, and counter terrorism operations. AFSOC's CoreTasks are grouped into four mission areas:  Forward Presence and Engagement,Information Operations, Precision Employment/Strike, and Special Operations ForcesMobility. AFSOC personnel deploy with specially trained and equipped forces from eachservice. The U.S. Special Operations School provides special operations-related educationto personnel from all branches of DoD, other government agencies, and allied nations.AFSOC’s three active-duty flying units are composed of more than 100 fixed androtary-wing aircraft, many of them specialized variants of the basic C-130 cargo airplane,that are organized in composite wings and groups.  These aircraft include:! MC-130E Combat Talon I and MC-130H Combat Talon II aircraft,which infiltrate, resupply, and exfiltrate U.S. and allied SOF units duringday and night and in adverse weather.! MC-130P Combat Shadow aircraft, which  fly clandestine (low-visibility), low-level, single- or multi-aircraft missions, primarily at night,penetrating politically sensitive or hostile territory to refuel other aircraft.MC-130Ps can also deliver SOF and equipment by airdrop.! AC-130H Spectre and AC-130U Spooky gunship aircraft, which conductclose air support, interdiction and force protection operations.! EC-130 Commando Solo aircraft, which conduct psychologicaloperations and civil affairs broadcasts in radio, TV, and militarycommunications bands. Secondary missions include information warfare,electronic attack, and some intelligence gathering.! MH-53J/M Pave Low helicopters, which conduct low-level, long-range,undetected penetration into denied areas, at day or night, and in adverseweather, for infiltration, exfiltration, and resupply of SOF. The V-22 Osprey tilt-rotor aircraft, a Marine Corps priority, is also being developedfor AFSOC.  If procured, SOF CV-22s will conduct long-range vertical takeoff andlanding infiltration, exfiltration and resupply missions.  The Osprey may provideincreased speed and range, low-altitude adverse-weather penetration, a state-of-the-artelectronic warfare suite, and maneuverability to perform missions that would normallyrequire fixed wing and rotor wing aircraft.Naval Special Operations Forces.5  The naval special warfare command  islocated in Coronado, CA, and includes about 4,950 active and almost 1,200 reserveCRS-6personnel.  Navy special warfare forces are organized into SEAL teams (SEAL stands forSea, Air and Land), Special Boat Units (SBUs), and SEAL Delivery Vehicle (SDV) teamsbased on both coasts.  The 4,950 active personnel include about 2,500 SEAL commandosand SEAL-qualified medical corpsmen, about 500 combatant craft crewmen, about 1,500fleet support technicians, and about 200 SDV personnel.SEAL teams are maritime multipurpose combat forces trained and equipped toperform various SOF missions.  SEAL commandos are considered the best-trainedcombat swimmers in the world, and can be deployed covertly from submarines or fromsea-based aircraft.  Although Afghanistan is a landlocked country hundreds of miles fromshore, SEALs appear to have formed a significant portion of the total U.S. SOF presencein Afghanistan.  The Navy testified in March 2002 that a Navy SEAL – an admiral –participated in the 800-man cavalry charge backed by four Navy F-14 strike-fighters thatdefeated Taliban/al Qaeda forces at the city of Mazar-e-Sharif.The Marine Corps has no dedicated SOF units, but Marine Expeditionary Units(MEUs), which contain roughly 2,000 Marines, can receive training in specific specialoperations prior to deploying, in which case they are certified as special-operations-capable (SOC) for the duration of their deployment and are referred to as MEU(SOC)s.In late 2001, the aircraft carrier Kitty Hawk deployed to the Northern Arabian Seawith only a partial complement of fixed-wing aircraft, where it reportedly was used as alaunch and recovery platform for helicopter-borne SOF units.Issues for CongressPotential issues for Congress regarding U.S. SOF include the following:Funding, Equipment, and Organization.  Have U.S. SOF units been fundedadequately in recent years?  Is the Administration proposing the right amount of fundingfor USSOCOM in FY2003?  Is the size and organization of U.S. special forcesappropriate in light of the campaign against terrorism and other 21st-Century securitychallenges?  Should U.S. SOF units be expanded so as to make up a greater share of U.S.ground forces, and if so, how difficult might this be, given the very high standards ofselection and training for U.S. SOF personnel?SOF and Defense Transformation.  What does the experience with U.S. SOFin Afghanistan reveal concerning possible directions for transforming U.S. defense forces,particularly ground forces?  To what extent are the lessons of the war in Afghanistanconcerning U.S. SOF applicable to the current war on terrorism in other countries, or toother potential conflicts in the future?SOF Operational Tempo.  With significant numbers of U.S. SOF personnelcurrently deployed to Afghanistan, the Philippines, and other countries, some observersare concerned that U.S. SOF forces are being stretched too thin, and that the current stresson the U.S. SOF force would be exacerbated if the United States were to deploy SOFforces as part of an additional military operation in Iraq or some other country.  What isthe current operational tempo of U.S. SOF forces?  What might be the potential impacton the readiness and retention of U.S. SOF forces of maintaining current levels of SOFactivity over the longer run?  How easily could U.S. SOF forces take on a significantadditional activity in Iraq or some other country?

Special Operations Forces in Operation Enduring Freedom: Background and Issues for Congress

1 Current authorities and definitions for SOF are found in Title 10, United States Code, Section167.  The statement of SOF importance to counter-terrorism was made in P.L 99-145; 99 Stat.760.Congressional Research Service ˜ The Library of CongressCRS Report for CongressReceived through the CRS WebOrder Code RS21048October 15, 2001Special Operations Forces in OperationEnduring Freedom: Background and Issuesfor CongressEdward F. Bruner, Christopher Bolkcom, and Ronald O’RourkeForeign Affairs, Defense, and Trade DivisionSummarySpecial Operations Forces (SOF) are elite, specialized military units that can beinserted “behind the lines” through land, sea, or air to conduct a variety of operations,many of them clandestine.  SOF units are expected to play an important role in U.S.military operations in Afghanistan and possibly elsewhere as part of Operation EnduringFreedom, the U.S. military campaign against terrorists.  This short report providesbackground information and issues for Congress on U.S. SOF units and will be updatedas events warrant.OverviewSpecial Operations Forces and predecessor forces have played a role in most U.S.conflicts.  Congress in 1986 expressed particular concern for the status of SOF withinoverall U.S. defense planning and consequently legislated measures to strengthen theirposition, having noted in 1985 that SOF provide the United States an “immediate andprimary capability to respond to terrorism.”1SOF personnel are carefully selected and undergo highly demanding training.  SOFactivities, which generally require greater proficiency and specialization than is normallyfound in conventional military units, include the following:! Direct Action.  Short-duration, small-scale offensive actions such asraids, ambushes, hostage rescues, and “surgical strikes.”! Strategic (Special) Reconnaissance. Clandestine operations in hostileterritory to gain significant information.! Unconventional Warfare.  Advising and supporting indigenousinsurgent and resistance groups operating in the territory of a commonenemy. (For example, the Northern Alliance in Afghanistan.)CRS-2! Foreign Internal Defense.  Assisting host nation military capabilities toforestall or defeat insurgent activities.! Civil Affairs.  Promoting civil-military cooperation between U.S. militaryforces and the foreign governments and populations within their area ofoperations.! Psychological Operations.  Influencing the attitudes and behavior ofrelevant populations to assist in accomplishing security missions.! Counterterrorism (CT).  Operations conducted by Special Mission Unitsto resolve or preempt terrorist incidents abroad and activities to assist orwork with other CT-designated agencies within the United States.! Humanitarian Assistance.  Providing various rudimentary services toforeign populations in adverse circumstances.! Theater Search and Rescue.  Finding and recovering pilots and aircrews downed on land or sea outside the United States, sometimes incombat or clandestine situations.! Such other activities as may be specified by the President or Secretary ofDefense.Many observers expect that SOF operations will constitute a significant part ofCENTCOM activities on the ground in Afghanistan during Operation Enduring Freedom.SOF units reportedly have been assisting indigenous anti-Taliban forces and conductingclandestine reconnaissance missions.  Additional potential roles include locating andTaliban or terrorist forces, designating them for attack by U.S. aircraft, capturing them inso-called “snatch-and-grab” operations, and killing them.  Some SOF being used inAfghanistan reportedly have been contributed by allies, such as highly regarded Special AirService units from the United Kingdom.Command Structures and FundingIn 1986, Congress established the U.S. Special Operations Command (USSOCOM)as a new unified command to oversee training, doctrine, and equipping of all U.S. SOF.The Commander in Chief of USSOCOM, or CINCSOC, is a four-star General or Admiralwho may be from any Service.  USSOCOM is headquartered at MacDill Air Force Basein Tampa, FL.  CINCSOC reports directly to the Secretary of Defense, although anAssistant Secretary of Defense for Special Operations and Low Intensity Conflict(SO/LIC) provides immediate civilian oversight over many of USSOCOM activities.Although CINCSOC may command SOF operations anywhere in the world -- whenspecifically directed by the Secretary of Defense -- it is more normal for CINCSOC toorganize and provide SOF to fight under the command of a regional CINC.U.S. military operations in and around Afghanistan are conducted by the U.S. CentralCommand (USCENTCOM) which also conducted Operation Desert Storm in 1991.CINCCENT, whose primary headquarters coincidentally is also at MacDill AFB, has apermanent SOF subordinate command.   This command, known as SOCCENT, wouldplan for, coordinate use of, and command all SOF forces provided to CINCCENT byCINCSOC.  Most SOF units have trained with SOF units from other services.U.S. SOF units include a total of roughly 45,000 active and reserve personnel acrossall the services, or about 2% of all U.S. active and reserve forces.  The current, dedicatedCRS-32 Information about current Army SOF was taken from an article by Lieutenant General Bryan(Doug) Brown, “U.S. Army Special Operations: Focusing on People – Humans are MoreImportant than Hardware,” Army, October 2001, pp. 157-162.USSOCOM budget is about $3.7 billion per year, or a bit more than 1% of the annualdefense budget.Army Special Operations Forces2U.S. Army SOF (ARSOF) include 26,000 soldiers from the Active Army, NationalGuard, and Army Reserve who are organized into Special Forces units, Rangers units,special operations aviation units, civil affairs units, psychological operations units, andspecial operations support units.  ARSOF Headquarters and other resources, such as theJohn F. Kennedy Special Warfare Center and School, are located at Fort Bragg, NC.  Five active Special Forces Groups (Airborne) are stationed at Fort Bragg and at FortLewis, WA, Fort Campbell, KY, and Fort Carson, CO.  Special Forces soldiers – alsoknown as the Green Berets – are trained in various skills, including foreign languages, thatallow teams to operate independently in designated regions of the world.  Two ArmyNational Guard SF groups are headquartered in Utah and Alabama.  An elite light infantry,airborne combat force, the 75th Ranger Regiment, is stationed at Fort Benning, GA.Army special operations aviation units feature pilots trained to fly the mostsophisticated Army rotary-wing aircraft in the toughest environments, day or night.  The160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment (Airborne) is stationed at Fort Campbell, KY.The regiment’s aircraft include MH47-E, MH60-L, and MH-6M helicopters.The most frequently deployed SOF assets are civil affairs (CA) units, which provideexperts in every area of civil government to help insure that the administration of civilianaffairs in the theater poses a minimum hindrance to U.S. military objectives.  The 96th CivilAffairs Battalion (Airborne) is the only active CA unit; all other CA units reside in fourArmy Reserve Civil Affairs Commands located in Pensacola, FL, Mountain View, CA,Riverdale, MD, and Bronx, NY.  Psychological operations units provide communications to large foreign audiencesthrough mass media, including radio, TV, Internet, print media, and face-to-facecommunication.  Soldiers must have technical and language skills paired with knowledgeof regional cultures.  The 4th Psychological Operations Group (Airborne) is stationed atFort Bragg, and two Army Reserve groups are located in Cleveland, OH, and at MoffettFederal Airfield, CA.Finally, Fort Bragg is also home to specialized supporting units and Special MissionUnits that support a variety of ARSOF and joint missions.  Notable among these is the 1stSpecial Forces Operational Detachment-Delta, often called Delta Force, which isreportedly is based at Fort Bragg and is trained specifically for counterterrorism missions,including hostage-rescue and snatch-and-grab operations.  Although widely discussed inthe press, the Pentagon does not publicly acknowledge Delta Force’s existence or talkabout its operations or capabilities.CRS-43 For additional information on Air Force SOF units, see Wall, Robert.  Conflict Could TestSpecial Ops Improvements.  Aviation Week & Space Technology, October 1, 2001: 30.Air Force Special Operations Forces3The Air Force Special Operations Command (AFSOC) includes about 10,000 activeand reserve personnel, of which about 22% are stationed overseas.  AFSOC isheadquartered at Hurlburt Field, FL, which is also the home of most of AFSOC’s activeunits, including the 16th Special Operations Wing, the 720th Special Tactics Group, the18th Flight Test Squadron, and the U.S. Air Force Special Operations School. The 352ndSpecial Operations Group is located at  RAF Mildenhall, England, and the 353rd SpecialOperations Group, is located at Kadena Air Base, Japan.Reserve AFSOC components include the 193rd Special Operations Wing, AirNational Guard stationed at Harrisburg, PA, the 280th Combat CommunicationsSquadron, Air National Guard stationed at Dothan, AL., and the 919th Special OperationsWing, Air Force Reserve stationed at Duke Field, FL.AFSOC units are trained for direct action, unconventional warfare, specialreconnaissance, foreign internal defense, and counter terrorism operations. AFSOC's CoreTasks are grouped into four mission areas:  Forward Presence and Engagement,Information Operations, Precision Employment/Strike, and Special Operations ForcesMobility. AFSOC personnel deploy with specially trained and equipped forces from eachservice. The U.S. Special Operations School provides special operations-related educationto personnel from all branches of DoD, other government agencies, and allied nations.AFSOC’s three active-duty flying units are composed of more than 100 fixed androtary-wing aircraft, many of them specialized variants of the basic C-130 cargo airplane,that are organized in composite wings and groups.  These aircraft include:! MC-130E Combat Talon I and MC-130H Combat Talon II aircraft, whichinfiltrate, resupply, and exfiltrate U.S. and allied SOF units during day andnight and in adverse weather.! MC-130P Combat Shadow aircraft, which  fly clandestine (low-visibility),low-level, single- or multi-aircraft missions, primarily at night, penetratingpolitically sensitive or hostile territory to refuel other aircraft.  MC-130Pscan also deliver SOF and equipment by airdrop.! AC-130H Spectre Gunship and the AC-130U Spooky Gunship aircraft,which conduct close air support, air interdiction and force protectionoperations.  Close air support missions include supporting troops incontact, escorting convoys, and urban operations.  Air interdictionmissions are conducted against preplanned targets or targets ofopportunity. Force protection missions include air base defense andfacilities defense.! EC-130 Commando Solo aircraft, which conduct psychologicaloperations and civil affairs broadcasts in AM, FM, and high frequencyradio, TV, and military communications bands. Missions are flown atmaximum altitude to ensure optimum broadcast range.  SecondaryCRS-54 Sources for information in this section: Waterborne Commandos.  Armed Forces JournalInternational, January 2000: 31-33 (an interview with Rear Admiral Eric T. Olson, Commander,U.S. Naval Special Warfare Command); Gourley, Scott R.  Setting The Seal On Maritime SpecialOperations Forces.  Jane’s Navy International, June 1999: 18-21, 23.  See also, Worthington,George.  Whither Naval Special Warfare?  U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings, January 1996: 61-63;Nolan, Mary I.  Warriors Who Come From the Sea. Sea Power, February 1995: 38-40; Waller,Douglas C.  Hell Week.  Newsweek, January 10, 1994: 28-33.missions include information warfare, electronic attack, and someintelligence gathering.! MH-53J/M Pave Low helicopters, which conduct low-level, long-range,undetected penetration into denied areas, at day or night, and in adverseweather, for infiltration, exfiltration, and resupply of SOF. The V-22 Osprey tilt-rotor aircraft, a Marine Corps priority, is also being developedfor AFSOC.  If procured, SOF CV-22s will conduct long-range vertical takeoff andlanding infiltration, exfiltration and resupply missions. The Osprey may provide increasedspeed and range, low-altitude adverse-weather penetration, a state-of-the-art electronicwarfare suite, and maneuverability to perform missions that would normally require fixedwing and rotor wing aircraft.Naval Special Operations Forces4The naval special warfare command includes about 4,950 active and almost 1,200reserve personnel, and is headquartered at Coronado, CA.  Navy special warfare forcesare organized into SEAL teams (SEAL stands for Sea, Air and Land), Special Boat Units(SBUs), and SEAL Delivery Vehicle (SDV) teams based on both coasts.  The 4,950 activepersonnel include about 2,500 SEAL commandos and SEAL-qualified medical corpsmen,about 500 combatant craft crewmen, about 1,500 fleet support technicians, and about 200SDV personnel.SEAL teams are maritime multipurpose combat forces trained and equipped toperform various SOF missions.  SEAL commandos are considered the best-trained combatswimmers in the world, and can be deployed covertly from submarines or from sea-basedaircraft.  They typically operate in 16-man platoons and conduct clandestine ground andwaterborne special reconnaissance and direct action missions in a maritime, littoral, orriverine environment.  A SEAL platoon and SBU detachment routinely embark with eachdeploying Navy/Marine Corps amphibious ready group.  A SEAL platoon embarks witheach carrier battle group deploying from the East Coast and a SEAL platoon is dedicatedto – but does not embark with – each carrier group deploying from the West Coast.Some observers believe SEALs are unlikely to be used significantly in Afghanistan,given the country’s landlocked location, hundreds of miles from shore.  Others note thatSEALs can be inserted into Afghanistan by ship-launched helicopters, just like other SOF.The Marine Corps has no dedicated SOF units, but Marine Expeditionary Units(MEUs), which contain roughly 2,000 Marines, including an infantry battalion and a smallair detachment, can receive training in specific special operations prior to deployingoverseas, in which case they are certified as special-operations-capable (SOC) for theduration of their deployment and are referred to as MEU(SOC)s.CRS-6Navy ships and Navy and Marine Corps aircraft can also be used to insert or recoverspecial operations forces of other military services.  The aircraft carrier Kitty Hawk wasrecently deployed from its home port in Japan with only a partial complement of fixed-wing aircraft, and observers speculate that the ship will go to the Northern Arabian Seato serve as a launch and recovery platform for helicopter-borne special forces units.Issues for CongressPotential issues for Congress regarding SOF include the following:Intelligence Support.  Clandestine direct-action operations, particularly thoseaimed at capturing or killing specific individuals or groups, depend for their success to alarge degree on having timely, high-quality intelligence about the targets in question.  AreU.S. intelligence-gathering capabilities against targets in Afghanistan – andcommunications links to SOF forces – sufficient to provide SOF units with high-qualityintelligence on a timely (i.e., real-time or near-real-time) basis?Work with Resistance Forces.  What kind of assistance are SOF units providingto the Northern Alliance and other indigenous resistance forces, and how does thisassistance fit into the broader U.S. anti-terrorism effort?  Are U.S. special forces takingsufficient advantage of the general knowledge and specific intelligence that resistanceforces and local populations can provide?  What are the operational risks of having U.S.special forces work with resistance forces and local populations?Funding, Equipment, and Organization.  Have U.S. special forces been fundedadequately in recent years?  Should the budget for special forces be increased, and if so,how should the additional funds be spent?  Is the size and organization of U.S. specialforces appropriate in light of the new campaign against terrorism and other 21st-Centurysecurity challenges, or should it be changed?  How will future SOF capabilities be affectedby potential changes to the V-22 Osprey program?Personnel Retention.  Some special forces units, such as the SEALs, haveexperienced difficulties in recent years in meeting personnel retention goals.  What is thecurrent SOF personnel-retention situation, and what, if anything, should be done toimprove it?Joint and Combined Operations.  How much do the special forces of thevarious services train with one another for joint (i.e., multiservice) operations?  How hasjoint SOF training been affected by the creation of USSOCOM?  How much do U.S. SOFforces train with British and other foreign SOF forces for combined (i.e., multi-national)operations?  Do foreign SOF units have any capabilities that U.S. SOF units lack, and ifso, should USSOCOM seek to incorporate these capabilities into U.S. SOF units?

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Special Operations Forces in Operation Enduring Freedom: Background and Issues for Congress

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