Sidor, T.H.

English

Research Papers in Economics

LAND  USE PLANNING  ISSUES
T.  H. Sidor, Assistant Director
Cooperative Extension Service
Oregon State University
The  Extension  Service  National  Land  Use  Task  Force  has
been  delegated the responsibility  of projecting an understanding of
the opportunities  and the processes involved in land resource  man-
agement.  Areas that have been identified for attention include:  (1)
issues  and concerns,  (2)  land  use policy  choices  and alternatives,
(3)  the decision  maker,  and  (4) the citizen's  role in land use  plan-
ning.
The problem  in the planning and allocation  of land resources  is
that  different  people  or  groups  want  different  things  from  these
resources.  What  constitutes  quality  of life  and  what  is  possible
under  certain  of these  resource  constraints  are  therefore  key  is-
sues.
Deciding  on  the  proper  use  of  land  depends  on  the  careful
assessment  of human  needs  and  desires.  Land  has been  equated
with power,  with  the establishment  of personal  identity,  and with
money,  as  a commodity  in  the marketplace.  It has been seen as  a
natural  resource,  as  a  source  of public  wealth,  and  as  space  for
expansion.
Tolerance  for different points of view,  coupled with apparently
boundless wealth,  has led  Americans  to  exploit  natural  resources
in  the name  of individual freedom.  Many  current  problems  stem
directly  or indirectly  from this continued  exploitation  of a limited
resource-land  price  speculation,  urban  sprawl,  diminishing  farm
lands,  and  lack of access  to  public  space.  The  prevalence  of the
automobile  has  also intensified  some  land  use problems.
Land use affects others besides the owners and users. The next
step is  to develop  policies,  programs,  and  legislation  for our land
resources  that avoid  or anticipate  problems before  they arise.
Effective evaluation  calls for recognition  of past circumstances
which have led to present conditions; awareness of facts needed to
assess  the  current  state  of affairs;  and,  finally,  use of these  two
kinds  of information  to  make  educated  guesses  about the future.
Within  such  a  framework,  the following  discussion  examines  six
central issues affecting  land use:
1. The  legal and economic  implications of land as property.
672.  The  implications  of rural-urban  relations.
3.  The effect  of technology  on land use.
4.  The  requirement  of land  for food  and  fiber  (consumer  de-
mands).
5.  Intergovernmental  relations  affecting  policy decisions.
6.  National  development and  population  distribution.
THE LEGAL AND ECONOMIC  IMPLICATIONS  OF LAND AS  PROPERTY
Property consists of the rights society gives  an individual with
respect  to  an  object  or physical  entity.  The  rules  for  controlling
what  society  gives  are  defined  by  law.  In  this  country  territorial
rights and property  ownership  have dominated  decisions affecting
land  use.  Many  questions  concerning  land  resources  have  been
settled by viewing land  as property.
As a consequence,  land owners have emphasized  the economic
aspects of property,  viewing it  primarily  as a commodity  or input
into  the  production  process.  Ownership  of commodities  has  im-
plied absolute rights concerning their use or disposition. Thus  indi-
viduals  tend to regard  land use as a  matter of personal  choice.
In  early  America,  concepts  of property  rights  assured  a  land
owner almost unrestricted  use of his land regardless  of the effects
on owners of adjacent property.  Land use effects  across  property
lines  led  to  nuisance  laws  permitting  other  land  owners  (or gov-
ernmental  units)  to  restrict  an  individual's  use  of his  property  if
such  use were  odorous,  unsightly,  noisy,  hazardous,  unhealthful,
or  harmful  to the general  welfare.
At  present,  a concern for the public interest clearly allows  the
restriction  or regulation  of land  use,  with  the extent and form  re-
maining in question.  Restrictions  on use, for example,  may reduce
the  economic  worth  of  land  without  any  compensation  to  the
owner.  Some agree such  restrictions amount to a taking only if the
economic  value of the  land  to the  individual  is concerned  and not
its value to the community.  Has the public the right to restrict  use
to the point that the property has no economic  value to the owner,
if  it  thereby  protects  a  public  right?  Conversely,  public  invest-
ments  may  increase  the  value  of an  individual's  property  at  the
taxpayer's  expense.  Should  the  owner  alone  gain  from  the  in-
creased  value, or should a portion of such value be returned to the
public  that created  it?
Only  recently  has  the  central  concept  of individual  property
68rights been challenged.  Now major challenges  which  must  be an-
swered have  arisen.
THE IMPLICATIONS  OF RURAL-URBAN  RELATIONS
Continuing population growth and concentration  in urban areas
have increased the demand for urban land-for homes, for industrial
and executive  parks,  for shopping  and  service  centers.  All these
uses  currently  require  greater  per  unit  land  area  than  the  more
densely built central city of older urban communities.  Since many
communities  were  originally  settled  as  trade  centers  amid prime
farm  land,  the  conversion  to urban  uses  often  results  in  loss  of
prime  land  from  agricultural  production.  Much  more  land  is  re-
moved  from agricultural  production  than is  needed  for urban  ex-
pansion.  Much  land  removed  from  agriculture  in  anticipation  of
urban use is good quality land.  A recent study in Springfield,  Mas-
sachusetts,  indicates that rural land is being urbanized at rates from
five to  ten times faster than  population  growth.
Contemporary  highways  call  for  greater areas,  with freeways
using  large  amounts  of land  in  both urban  and  rural  settings,  to
serve mainly urban-based  traffic.  Urban residents  also look to the
rural  land  for  recreational  opportunities  and  for  second  homes.
These  urban  pressures frequently  conflict  with rural  uses and de-
sires  of rural  residents.  An awareness of man's impact on the land
resource  must now  be  accompanied  by alternatives  to  realize  the
whole  potential  of this  resource.  High quality agricultural land
should not be lost by default but by  deliberate decision.
Land  use  decisions  should  be  based  on both  rural  and  urban
needs.  Whatever  policies  this generation  adopts  should  take  into
account  both  present  and  future  demands,  as  they  can  be
identified,  for both  rural and  urban land  resources.
TECHNOLOGY  AND THE  LAND
Modern  technology  also  has  implications  for  land  use.  One
aspect of technology has been the amount of solid waste generated
each  year.  Much  of this  solid  waste  goes  into  open  dumps  and
sanitary  landfills  (occupying  an  estimated  half million  acres)  that
are  located  in  areas  of active  agricultural  production.  Continued
solid  waste  disposal  may  require  as  much  as  150,000  additional
acres each  year.
Modern techniques  for raising livestock and poultry  in concen-
trated operations raise the problem of handling animal wastes, and
this  problem  in turn  has a  direct  bearing  on the location  of these
industries.
69Flood control and drainage projects  have mixed impacts  on use
of land.  The  construction  of reservoirs  reduces  the  land  surface
area.  Such  reservoirs  may have  either  a  beneficial  or  an  adverse
effect  on fish,  wildlife,  recreation,  and  stream  bank  erosion.
Unlimited surface mining has disturbed about two million acres
of land,  resulting  in  pollution  through  acid  mine  drainage  into
streams  and  in  scars  on the  land's  surface.  The  current  need  for
energy will probably result in further extensive  surface mine opera-
tions to  reach  the  nation's  sizable coal  and  shale  resources.
LAND FOR FOOD  AND  FIBER
Since  World  War  II,  the  United  States  has  been  able  to  in-
crease land productivity  at a greater rate than its population growth
through  the  application  of pesticides  and  fertilizers  and  the  de-
velopment  of improved  varieties.  However,  studies  of the  long-
range  effects  of pesticides  and  fertilizers  have  led to  demands  for
restriction of their use.  Should such restrictions result in decreased
production,  more land will be needed to produce  the same amount
of food.
So  far,  land  for  agricultural  use  has  not been  a  major  policy
issue  in this  nation.  Even now,  the issue  is  not a  shortage of land
but rather effective  use  of land.  Planning  and  control of land  use
can  guide  the spatial  distribution  of population  and  economic  ac-
tivities,  public  development  investments,  and the  preservation of
land for agricultural  and timber  production  to  meet both  national
and international  needs.
INTERGOVERNMENTAL  RELATIONS
Land  policy  has  had  a powerful  effect  on  this nation's  growth
and  development.  From  the  beginning  it  has  been  the  source  of
bitter conflicts,  first between  developed  nations  vying for rights to
the  new  world,  then  between  settlers  and  Indians,  and  finally
among  the  colonists  themselves.  The  nation  developed  various
policies  that  promoted  westward  migration.  Land  grants  were
made  to  encourage  railroads,  telephone  lines,  roads,  and  canals.
The Homestead Act helped settlers to push westward and develop
new  land.  Preservation  policy began  in  1891  with  the  Forest  Re-
serve Act. New laws created national parks and game refuges. The
National  Soil and  Water  movement  resulted  in  further legislation
concerning  land as  well  as  agricultural  production.
Although  land grants,  the  Homestead  Act,  and other  govern-
mental policy  have  led  primarily  to  disposal of land  in  the public
domain,  the federal  government  has recently  shown great concern
70about future utilization  of public as well as private land. This  con-
cern  has  been reflected  in  a  variety  of multi-county  planning  or-
ganizations,  in national  environmental  legislation,  and  in  special
concerns  with coastal  zoning.
Over  the  past  fifty  years  local  governmental  units  have  had
almost total responsibility  for actual  control of land  use. The  1924
Model  Zoning Act and  the  1928  Standard  Enabling  Planning  Act
still guide  current  land  use  control practices.  Continued  state  re-
liance  on the  concept of these  two  model  acts has  kept  planning
and land use controls in the hands of local  government.
However,  the growing  concern for long-range  conservation of
natural resources  on the part of both federal and state government
has interacted  with  the  investment of public funds  to create  pres-
sure  for  comprehensive  intergovernmental  land  use  planning.
Presently a primary  need  is to develop  a workable  interaction  be-
tween levels of government  so that coordinated land use decisions
are  possible.  Such interaction  depends on defining which  elements
of land use are of national concern  and which  are the proper con-
cern of state and local  government.  Federal grants to local entities
for  water  and  sewer  facilities  without  proper  attention  to  sound
land  use  planning  is  one  example  of the  need  for  better  inter-
governmental  coordination.
NATIONAL  DEVELOPMENT  AND POPULATION  DISTRIBUTION
Almost  30  percent  of the  nation's  population  lives  in  central
cities  and another  40 percent  in  suburbs,  small  urban  places,  and
rural areas  within standard  metropolitan  statistical  areas.  The  re-
maining  30 percent live outside the metropolitan  area.  Although  a
greater  proportion  of the  population  lives  in  concentrated  urban
settlements,  the  latest  census  shows  continued  growth  in  more
dispersed  communities  outside  the urbanized  areas.
The  federal  government,  with  the  adoption  of the  Rural  De-
velopment  Act of 1972,  has recognized,  as part of its national  de-
velopment  policy,  that the nonmetropolitan  portion of the  nation
must receive  increased  attention.  Full  and forceful  application  of
the act  would  influence  population  distribution,  with larger  num-
bers remaining or being attracted to nonmetropolitan areas.  Should
this occur, additional pressures for land for urban uses would arise
in the  dispersed  communities.  A continuation  of the trend  would
also  reduce the population  density  in metropolitan  areas.
No matter what progress  is made in rural development, most of
the population will  still live in urban  areas.  Public investment  and
governmental  policies  can  influence  urban  land  use.  Policies  to
71contain  urban  sprawl,  to  renew  deteriorating  areas,  and  to  put
vacant  lands within urban perimeters  into productive  use are  pos-
sible  matters  for governmental  attention.
There is a need for relevant research and policy determinations.
There is  an urgent  need for study of the economic and social con-
siderations  in  land use  planning.
We have  all the land we need  to produce  the food products we
will need as a nation.  I  have not heard a word about the cost as we
use  our better  agricultural  land  for  supposedly  needed  housing,
transportation,  and other  purposes.
I  have  not  heard  about  the  costs  associated  with  energy  of
moving  our people  from  the  outlying  subdivisions  to  the  central
area of production,  or the  costs  or  policy  decisions  that must  be
faced  if are  are to  have  public participation  in land use  decisions.
Gene Wunderlich,  in  a paper entitled  "Who  Owns  America's
Land?"  says:
Research  on  property  is  subject  to  the  great dilemma  of choosing
between  analyses  that  are  specific  enough  to  be empirically  sound  and
analyses  that  are  general  enough  to  be  of significance.  Can  there  be
criteria  for the  economic  performance  of the  property system?  Can the
transaction  costs of marketing rights be determined?  How well does the
property system assign costs and benefits of economic activity? Perhaps,
too,  the  really important  issues  have  little to  do  with  economics.
Raleigh  Barlowe  in  his  publication,  Land  Resource Eco-
nomics, commented:
With  increased  population  pressure  and  the  increased  material  re-
quirements of modern  life,  the  area needs  of almost every  type of land
use are bound  to increase.  The problems of meeting these additional land
requirements  would  be  simplified  if each  use could  expand  without  in-
fringing  upon lands  needed for other purposes.
This is what it is all about.  Land use planning is not a simplistic
endeavor;  it is time consuming and it is a sophisticated process.  It
is  a controversial  subject.  It  deals  with  emotion  and  logic,  with
idealism  and  political  reality,  with  preservation  and  market-
oriented  traditionalism.  Above  all,  it  deals  with  people  and  their
reliance  on the  nonrenewable  resource-land.
72

LAND USE PLANNING ISSUES

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