The aim of the paper is to propose a new simple frictionless model of international trade shares as an alternative to standard gravity models. In the proposed model (total) shares of export from a given country depend only on a gross domestic product and a distance of importing countries. The model is examined by a linear regression with corrected heteroscedasticity for the latest export data from Germany and the Czech Republic. Results show that the model is very successful in explaining export shares with coefficients of determinacy 0.75 and 0.98 respectively

Mazurek, Jiri

Munich RePEc Personal Archive

MPRAMunich Personal RePEc ArchiveThe Flow Model of Exports: AnIntroductionJiri MazurekSchool of Business Administration in Karvina´13. January 2014Online at http://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/52920/MPRA Paper No. 52920, posted 14. January 2014 08:03 UTCThe Flow Model of Exports: An Introduction  Jiří Mazurek  School of Business Administration in Karviná, Silesian University in Opava, Czech Republic, e-mail: mazurek@opf.slu.cz  Abstract: The aim of the paper is to propose a new simple frictionless model of international trade shares as an alternative to standard gravity models. In the proposed model (total) shares of export from a given country depend only on a gross domestic product and a distance of importing countries. The model is examined by a linear regression with corrected heteroscedasticity for the latest export data from Germany and the Czech Republic. Results show that the model is very successful in explaining export shares with coefficients of determinacy 0.75 and 0.98 respectively.     Keywords: export, Czech Republic, Germany, gravity model, international trade.   JEL: C51, F14, F17.  1. Introduction  Recently, a quantitative description of international trade by gravity models of various kinds (with or without frictions, structural or non-structural, etc.) based on Newton’s law of gravitation grew on popularity in the literature with some success in explaining empirical data (observed volumes of trade among countries). The gravity model for international trade was used for the first time by Tinbergen (1962), and then it was followed by many other studies, see e.g. Andersen (1979), Bergstrand (1985), Anderson and Wincoop (2003), Helpman et al. (2008) or Baier and Bergstrand (2009) to name a few. A concise review of gravity approach to international trade can be found e.g. in Anderson (2010). Gravity models of trade are analogy to Newton’s law of gravity:  1 22gm mFrκ⋅=  ,     (1) Where Fg is a gravitation force, m1 and m2 are masses, r distance of both masses and κ  (also denoted as G) is a gravitational constant.  The frictionless and aggregate gravity model of trade assumes that supply Yi of a country i is attracted by a demand Ej of a country j, where dij denotes a distance of both countries, see Anderson (2010):   2i JijijY EXd=       (2) In alternative models gross domestic product or income per capita (along with a population) of both countries is used instead of supply and demand, see e.g. Anderson (1979). From a simple model (2) more sophisticated models with trade frictions (trade barriers) and disaggregated goods (frictions are different for different goods in reality) can be formulated, see Anderson (2010).    But these models have some drawbacks: firstly, multiplying a supply of one country by a demand of some other country in (2) makes little economic sense (and there is also a question how to measure demand in a country i for goods from a country j). Secondly, Newton’s law of gravity describes the force resulting from interaction of two point-like masses at distance r, not a flow.  More suitable and natural physical analogy of a flow of goods (or money, labour, immigrants, etc.) is a flow of electric particles (electric current) represented in its simplest form by the Ohm’s law:     VIR=       (3) In (3) I denotes an electric current (in ampers) through a conductor, V is a difference of electric potentials between both ends of a conductor (in volts) and R is a resistance of a conductor (in ohms). As an analogy to Ohm’s law the following law of (relative) exports will be considered:  (%) jij iijGDPE kDIST=      (4) In (4) ijE denotes share of an export (in %) from a country i to a country j, jGDP  is a gross domestic product of an importing country j (in billions of USD), ijDIST  is a distance between countries i and j (given as an air distance of capital cities in kilometers), and ki are (positive) constants.  It should be noted that if absolute values of exports (e.g. in billions of USD) were considered in (4) instead of relative exports, then only coefficients ki would change, which in turn wouldn’t influence properties of regression models based on (4).  Relation (4) states that the share of export rises when an importing country is closer and/or richer. Frictions of any kind (customs, borders, different languages, bureaucratic obstacles, etc.) are not considered here as well as structurality (different goods are traded under different conditions), Because ijE is given in (%), an export to all (n) trading partner countries must sum up to 100% for all countries:  1100%, .nijjE i== ∀∑      (5) Also, from (4) it follows that two importing countries with equal GDP and distance from an exporting country i have the same share of export from this country. If an export was independent on a distance then export shares from a country i would be fully determined (proportional) by GDP of importing countries.  To account for possible trade frictions the model (4) can be extended to take the following form:  (1 )jij iij ijGDPE kDIST F=+,    (6) where Fij denotes a friction in an export from a country i to a country j. In general ij jiF F≠ .  The aim of the article is to examine how the Export law (4) fits the export data for two selected Central European countries: Germany and the Czech Republic. These countries are suitably located in the middle of the continent surrounded by many trading partners in different distances unlike rather isolated countries such as Iceland, Ireland or Cyprus. Moreover, there are reliable data of their exporting partners.   2. The data and the method  For the empirical investigation of the flow model of export defined by relation (4) the following data were used:  • Exporting partners (shares in %) were obtained from Bridgat (2013), actualized in June 2013. Because the list of all exporting partners may be very long (including theoretically all countries of the World) and the data on partner countries with shares of only fractions of a percent are not sufficiently reliable and precise, the list was terminated when the sum of export shares of countries on the list exceeded 90%. The data on exporting partners for Germany and the Czech Republic is provided in Tables 1 and 2.  • Distances between a given country and its export partners (in km) were obtained from a distance calculator at Timeanddate (2013). The distance between two countries was defined as an air distance between their capital cities.  • GDP (PPP) in billion USD were retrieved  from the International Monetary Fund (2012). All the data for both countries are provided in Tables 1 and 2. It should be noted that export shares and GDP (PPP) change in time and are a subject of later revisions.  Table 1. The data for the Czech Republic as an exporter. Exporter: CZECH REP. EXPORT to (%) DIST (km) GDP (billion USD) PPP Germany 32.390 280 3167 Slovakia 8.860 292 132 Poland 6.650 514 802 France 5.750 885 2252 United Kingdom 5.300 1034 2312 Austria 4.780 250 359 Russia 2.830 1664 2486 Italy 4.890 922 1813 Netherlands 3.940 707 710 Belgium 2.750 721 421 United States 1.760 6589 15653 Hungary 2.840 444 197 Spain 2.370 1773 1407 Switzerland 1.450 623 362 Sweden 1.820 1056 396 Romania 1.410 1076 274,1 Ukraine 0.970 1146 335     Source: IMF (2012), Bridgat (2013), Timeanddate (2013).       Table 2. The data for Germany as an exporter. Exporter: GERMANY EXPORT to (%) DIST (km) GDP (billion USD) PPP France 9.9 879 2252 UK 6.91 932 2312 Netherlands 6.51 577 710 USA 7.96 6402 15653 Austria 5.4 523 359 Italy 6.59 1183 1813 China 3.69 7377 12261 Switzerland 4.15 752 362 Belgium 5.24 651 421 Poland 4.08 520 802 Spain 4.53 1870 1407 Russia 3.52 1616 2486 Czech Republic 2.85 280 287 Sweden 2.11 813 396 Hungary 1.82 691 197 Denmark 1.63 356 210 Turkey 1.62 2042 1125 Japan 1.36 8940 4575 Finland 0.96 1109 198 Korea 0.93 8150 1622 Slovakia 0.9 554 132 Brazil 0.9 9429 2230 Romania 0.87 1297 274,1 India 0.86 5793 4716 UAE 0.83 4641 271 Portugal 0.82 2315 245 Norway 0.82 840 278 Greece 0.79 1804 281 South Africa 0.75 8831 579 Mexico 0.75 9741 1758 Source: IMF (2012), Bridgat (2013), Timeanddate (2013).      For an examination of the theoretical model of international export given by relation (4) the following regression model is considered:  ij i j ijE k GDP DISTα β= ⋅ ⋅     (7) Taking natural logarithms (all variables are positive) of both sides of (7) yields: ln ln ln lnij i j ijE k GDP DISTα β= + ⋅ +    (8) The linear regression model (8) with corrected heteroscedasticity was tested with the use of the empirical data (for each country separately) from Tables 1 and 2. For the regression free statistical software Gretl was utilized.  3. Results  Results of linear regressions for the Czech Republic and Germany via the model (8)  are shown in Tables 3 and 4. The model successfully models shares of export For both countries, as in the case of the Czech Republic both explanatory (independent) variables are highly significant ( 510p −≤ ) and coefficient of determinacy is around 0.98. Also in the case of Germany both explanatory variables are highly significant ( 310p −≤ ), but the coefficient of determinacy is smaller: 0.75. Generally, in both cases the model predicts exports shares successfully. By the linear regression the following relationships were obtained:  • Czech Republic:  5.177 0.652 1.241j j jE e GDP DIST−=     (9) • Germany:   2.544 0.600 0.784j j jE e GDP DIST−=     (10) Values of coefficients α, β and k of the model (7) were found positive as expected for both countries. In both cases the coefficient α is close to 0.6, but β is higher in the absolute value than 1 in the case of the Czech Republic and smaller than 1 in the case of Germany. This result implies that a distance plays larger role in an export from the Czech Republic, or alternatively, that exporters from Germany are more capable of overcoming transportation distances  (costs). Figures 1 and 2 demonstrate relationships (9) and (10) graphically.     Table 3. Linear regression characteristics: the Czech Republic. CZECH REP. coefficient st. error t-value p-value Signif. const 5.17747 0.162231 31.9142 <0.00001 *** LOG__DIST_ -1.2412 0.046711 -26.5719 <0.00001 *** LOG__GDP_ 0.652561 0.0425102 15.3507 <0.00001 *** determinacy coeff. 0.9869 Adj. determ. coeff. 0.9849 F (2,14) 525.9 p-value (F) 6.75e-14 Schwarz criterion 78.45 Aikake criterion 75.95 Source: own   Table 4. Linear regression characteristics: Germany. GERMANY coefficient st. error t-value p-value Signif. const 2.54425 0.614688 4.1391 0.00031 *** LOG__DIST_ -0.784429 0.0882221 -8.8915 <0.00001 *** LOG__GDP_ 0.600304 0.0790274 7.5962 <0.00001 *** determinacy coeff. 0.7677 Adj. determ. coeff. 0.7505 F (2,27) 44.63 p-value (F) 2.76e-09 Schwarz criterion 127.8 Aikake criterion 123.6 Source: own  -1-0,500,511,522,5-1 -0,5 0 0,5 1 1,5 22.544-0.784LN(DIST)+0.600LN(GDP)LN(export) Figure 1. The relationship between logarithm of export and the combination of GDP and  distance logarithms according to (9) for Germany, with the linear trend. Source: own.  00,511,522,533,540 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 45.177-1.241LN(DIST)+0.652LN(GDP)LN(export) Figure 2. The relationship between logarithm of export and the combination of GDP and  distance logarithms according to (9) for the Czech Rep., with the linear trend. Source: own. 4. Conclusions  The aim of this paper was to propose a new (flow) model of international export based on a gross domestic product and a distance of importing countries from a given exporting country. This is a different approach from standard gravity models used in the literature where also characteristics of exporting countries (income, GDP or population) are considered.  Empirical examination of export shares of two selected Central European countries (Germany and the Czech Republic) revealed that the model is very successful in fitting the data with coefficients of determinacy equal to 0.75 and 0.98 respectively.  Also, the model offers many directions to the subsequent research: it can be examined for other countries of the World (for example in Asia or Africa), for different types of economies (transition ones, open, free market, socialist, etc.) or for different years, it can be used for special goods (disaggregated models) or trade frictions, and at last but not for the least it can be compared with existing gravity models.     References  Anderson J. E. (2010). The Gravity model. NBER Working Paper Series, pages: 47.  Anderson J. E. (1979). A theoretical foundation for the gravity equation, American Economic Review 69, pp. 106-116. Anderson, J. E.,  van Wincoop, E. (2003). Gravity with Gravitas, American Economic Review, 93, pp. 170-92. Baier, S. L., Bergstrand, J. H. (2009). Bonus Vetus OLS: A Simple Method for Approximating International Trade-Cost Efects using the Gravity Equation, Journal of International Economics, vol. 77, no. 1. Bergstrand J. H. (1985). The Gravity Equation in International Trade: Some Microeconomic Foundations and Empirical Evidence, Review of Economics and Statistics, vol. 67, no. 3, pp. 474-481. Bridgat. (2013). [online]. Available from: http://countries.bridgat.com Helpman, E., Melitz, M.J. and Rubinstein, Y. (2008). Estimating Trade Flows: Trading Partners and Trading Volumes, Quarterly Journal of Economics, 123, pp. 441-487. International Monetary Fund (IMF). (2013). [online]. Available from: http://www.imf.org. Timeanddate. (2013). [online]. Available from: http://www.timeanddate.com/worldclock/ Tinbergen, J. (1962). Shaping the World Economy: Suggestions for an International Economic Policy. New York: The Twentieth Century Fund. 

The Flow Model of Exports: An Introduction

Munich Personal RePEc Archive

MPRA
Munich Personal RePEc Archive
The Flow Model of Exports: An
Introduction
Jiri Mazurek
School of Business Administration in Karvina´
13. January 2014
Online at http://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/52920/
MPRA Paper No. 52920, posted 14. January 2014 08:03 UTC
The Flow Model of Exports: An Introduction 
 
Jiří Mazurek 
 
School of Business Administration in Karviná, Silesian University in Opava, 
Czech Republic, e-mail: mazurek@opf.slu.cz 
 
Abstract: The aim of the paper is to propose a new simple frictionless model of international trade shares as an 
alternative to standard gravity models. In the proposed model (total) shares of export from a given country 
depend only on a gross domestic product and a distance of importing countries. The model is examined by a 
linear regression with corrected heteroscedasticity for the latest export data from Germany and the Czech 
Republic. Results show that the model is very successful in explaining export shares with coefficients of 
determinacy 0.75 and 0.98 respectively.   
  
Keywords: export, Czech Republic, Germany, gravity model, international trade. 
  
JEL: C51, F14, F17. 
 
1. Introduction 
 
Recently, a quantitative description of international trade by gravity models of various kinds 
(with or without frictions, structural or non-structural, etc.) based on Newton’s law of 
gravitation grew on popularity in the literature with some success in explaining empirical data 
(observed volumes of trade among countries). The gravity model for international trade was 
used for the first time by Tinbergen (1962), and then it was followed by many other studies, 
see e.g. Andersen (1979), Bergstrand (1985), Anderson and Wincoop (2003), Helpman et al. 
(2008) or Baier and Bergstrand (2009) to name a few. A concise review of gravity approach 
to international trade can be found e.g. in Anderson (2010). 
Gravity models of trade are analogy to Newton’s law of gravity:  
1 2
2g
m mF
r
κ
⋅
=  ,     (1) 
Where Fg is a gravitation force, m1 and m2 are masses, r distance of both masses and κ  (also 
denoted as G) is a gravitational constant.  
The frictionless and aggregate gravity model of trade assumes that supply Yi of a country i is 
attracted by a demand Ej of a country j, where dij denotes a distance of both countries, see 
Anderson (2010):   
2
i J
ij
ij
Y EX
d
=       (2) 
In alternative models gross domestic product or income per capita (along with a population) 
of both countries is used instead of supply and demand, see e.g. Anderson (1979). From a 
simple model (2) more sophisticated models with trade frictions (trade barriers) and 
disaggregated goods (frictions are different for different goods in reality) can be formulated, 
see Anderson (2010).    
But these models have some drawbacks: firstly, multiplying a supply of one country by a 
demand of some other country in (2) makes little economic sense (and there is also a question 
how to measure demand in a country i for goods from a country j). Secondly, Newton’s law of 
gravity describes the force resulting from interaction of two point-like masses at distance r, 
not a flow.  
More suitable and natural physical analogy of a flow of goods (or money, labour, immigrants, 
etc.) is a flow of electric particles (electric current) represented in its simplest form by the 
Ohm’s law:     
VI
R
=       (3) 
In (3) I denotes an electric current (in ampers) through a conductor, V is a difference of 
electric potentials between both ends of a conductor (in volts) and R is a resistance of a 
conductor (in ohms). 
As an analogy to Ohm’s law the following law of (relative) exports will be considered:  
(%) jij i
ij
GDP
E k
DIST
=      (4) 
In (4) ijE denotes share of an export (in %) from a country i to a country j, jGDP  is a gross 
domestic product of an importing country j (in billions of USD), ijDIST  is a distance between 
countries i and j (given as an air distance of capital cities in kilometers), and ki are (positive) 
constants.  
It should be noted that if absolute values of exports (e.g. in billions of USD) were considered 
in (4) instead of relative exports, then only coefficients ki would change, which in turn 
wouldn’t influence properties of regression models based on (4).  
Relation (4) states that the share of export rises when an importing country is closer and/or 
richer. Frictions of any kind (customs, borders, different languages, bureaucratic obstacles, 
etc.) are not considered here as well as structurality (different goods are traded under different 
conditions), 
Because ijE is given in (%), an export to all (n) trading partner countries must sum up to 
100% for all countries: 
 
1
100%, .
n
ij
j
E i
=
= ∀∑      (5) 
Also, from (4) it follows that two importing countries with equal GDP and distance from an 
exporting country i have the same share of export from this country. If an export was 
independent on a distance then export shares from a country i would be fully determined 
(proportional) by GDP of importing countries.  
To account for possible trade frictions the model (4) can be extended to take the following 
form:  
(1 )
j
ij i
ij ij
GDP
E k
DIST F
=
+
,    (6) 
where Fij denotes a friction in an export from a country i to a country j. In general ij jiF F≠ .  
The aim of the article is to examine how the Export law (4) fits the export data for two 
selected Central European countries: Germany and the Czech Republic. These countries are 
suitably located in the middle of the continent surrounded by many trading partners in 
different distances unlike rather isolated countries such as Iceland, Ireland or Cyprus. 
Moreover, there are reliable data of their exporting partners.  
 
2. The data and the method 
 
For the empirical investigation of the flow model of export defined by relation (4) the 
following data were used:  
• Exporting partners (shares in %) were obtained from Bridgat (2013), actualized in 
June 2013. Because the list of all exporting partners may be very long (including 
theoretically all countries of the World) and the data on partner countries with shares 
of only fractions of a percent are not sufficiently reliable and precise, the list was 
terminated when the sum of export shares of countries on the list exceeded 90%. The 
data on exporting partners for Germany and the Czech Republic is provided in Tables 
1 and 2.  
• Distances between a given country and its export partners (in km) were obtained from 
a distance calculator at Timeanddate (2013). The distance between two countries was 
defined as an air distance between their capital cities.  
• GDP (PPP) in billion USD were retrieved  from the International Monetary Fund 
(2012). 
All the data for both countries are provided in Tables 1 and 2. It should be noted that export 
shares and GDP (PPP) change in time and are a subject of later revisions. 
 
Table 1. The data for the Czech Republic as an exporter. 
Exporter: CZECH REP. EXPORT to (%) DIST (km) GDP (billion USD) PPP 
Germany 32.390 280 3167 
Slovakia 8.860 292 132 
Poland 6.650 514 802 
France 5.750 885 2252 
United Kingdom 5.300 1034 2312 
Austria 4.780 250 359 
Russia 2.830 1664 2486 
Italy 4.890 922 1813 
Netherlands 3.940 707 710 
Belgium 2.750 721 421 
United States 1.760 6589 15653 
Hungary 2.840 444 197 
Spain 2.370 1773 1407 
Switzerland 1.450 623 362 
Sweden 1.820 1056 396 
Romania 1.410 1076 274,1 
Ukraine 0.970 1146 335 
    Source: IMF (2012), Bridgat (2013), Timeanddate (2013). 
 
  
 
 
 
Table 2. The data for Germany as an exporter. 
Exporter: GERMANY EXPORT to (%) DIST (km) GDP (billion USD) PPP 
France 9.9 879 2252 
UK 6.91 932 2312 
Netherlands 6.51 577 710 
USA 7.96 6402 15653 
Austria 5.4 523 359 
Italy 6.59 1183 1813 
China 3.69 7377 12261 
Switzerland 4.15 752 362 
Belgium 5.24 651 421 
Poland 4.08 520 802 
Spain 4.53 1870 1407 
Russia 3.52 1616 2486 
Czech Republic 2.85 280 287 
Sweden 2.11 813 396 
Hungary 1.82 691 197 
Denmark 1.63 356 210 
Turkey 1.62 2042 1125 
Japan 1.36 8940 4575 
Finland 0.96 1109 198 
Korea 0.93 8150 1622 
Slovakia 0.9 554 132 
Brazil 0.9 9429 2230 
Romania 0.87 1297 274,1 
India 0.86 5793 4716 
UAE 0.83 4641 271 
Portugal 0.82 2315 245 
Norway 0.82 840 278 
Greece 0.79 1804 281 
South Africa 0.75 8831 579 
Mexico 0.75 9741 1758 
Source: IMF (2012), Bridgat (2013), Timeanddate (2013). 
 
 
 
 
 
For an examination of the theoretical model of international export given by relation (4) the 
following regression model is considered:  
ij i j ijE k GDP DIST
α β
= ⋅ ⋅     (7) 
Taking natural logarithms (all variables are positive) of both sides of (7) yields: 
ln ln ln lnij i j ijE k GDP DISTα β= + ⋅ +    (8) 
The linear regression model (8) with corrected heteroscedasticity was tested with the use of 
the empirical data (for each country separately) from Tables 1 and 2. For the regression free 
statistical software Gretl was utilized. 
 
3. Results 
 
Results of linear regressions for the Czech Republic and Germany via the model (8)  are 
shown in Tables 3 and 4. The model successfully models shares of export For both countries, 
as in the case of the Czech Republic both explanatory (independent) variables are highly 
significant ( 510p −≤ ) and coefficient of determinacy is around 0.98. Also in the case of 
Germany both explanatory variables are highly significant ( 310p −≤ ), but the coefficient of 
determinacy is smaller: 0.75. Generally, in both cases the model predicts exports shares 
successfully. 
By the linear regression the following relationships were obtained:  
• Czech Republic:  5.177 0.652 1.241j j jE e GDP DIST
−
=     (9) 
• Germany:   2.544 0.600 0.784j j jE e GDP DIST
−
=     (10) 
Values of coefficients α, β and k of the model (7) were found positive as expected for both 
countries. In both cases the coefficient α is close to 0.6, but β is higher in the absolute value 
than 1 in the case of the Czech Republic and smaller than 1 in the case of Germany. This 
result implies that a distance plays larger role in an export from the Czech Republic, or 
alternatively, that exporters from Germany are more capable of overcoming transportation 
distances  (costs). Figures 1 and 2 demonstrate relationships (9) and (10) graphically.   
 
 
Table 3. Linear regression characteristics: the Czech Republic. 
CZECH REP. coefficient st. error t-value p-value Signif. 
const 5.17747 0.162231 31.9142 <0.00001 *** 
LOG__DIST_ -1.2412 0.046711 -26.5719 <0.00001 *** 
LOG__GDP_ 0.652561 0.0425102 15.3507 <0.00001 *** 
determinacy coeff. 0.9869 Adj. determ. coeff. 0.9849 
F (2,14) 525.9 p-value (F) 6.75e-14 
Schwarz criterion 78.45 Aikake criterion 75.95 
Source: own 
 
 
Table 4. Linear regression characteristics: Germany. 
GERMANY coefficient st. error t-value p-value Signif. 
const 2.54425 0.614688 4.1391 0.00031 *** 
LOG__DIST_ -0.784429 0.0882221 -8.8915 <0.00001 *** 
LOG__GDP_ 0.600304 0.0790274 7.5962 <0.00001 *** 
determinacy coeff. 0.7677 Adj. determ. coeff. 0.7505 
F (2,27) 44.63 p-value (F) 2.76e-09 
Schwarz criterion 127.8 Aikake criterion 123.6 
Source: own 
 
-1
-0,5
0
0,5
1
1,5
2
2,5
-1 -0,5 0 0,5 1 1,5 2
2.544-0.784LN(DIST)+0.600LN(GDP)
LN
(ex
po
rt
)
 
Figure 1. The relationship between logarithm of export and the combination of GDP and  
distance logarithms according to (9) for Germany, with the linear trend. Source: own. 
 
0
0,5
1
1,5
2
2,5
3
3,5
4
0 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 4
5.177-1.241LN(DIST)+0.652LN(GDP)
LN
(ex
po
rt
)
 
Figure 2. The relationship between logarithm of export and the combination of GDP and  
distance logarithms according to (9) for the Czech Rep., with the linear trend. Source: own. 
4. Conclusions 
 
The aim of this paper was to propose a new (flow) model of international export based on a 
gross domestic product and a distance of importing countries from a given exporting country. 
This is a different approach from standard gravity models used in the literature where also 
characteristics of exporting countries (income, GDP or population) are considered.  
Empirical examination of export shares of two selected Central European countries (Germany 
and the Czech Republic) revealed that the model is very successful in fitting the data with 
coefficients of determinacy equal to 0.75 and 0.98 respectively. 
 Also, the model offers many directions to the subsequent research: it can be examined for 
other countries of the World (for example in Asia or Africa), for different types of economies 
(transition ones, open, free market, socialist, etc.) or for different years, it can be used for 
special goods (disaggregated models) or trade frictions, and at last but not for the least it can 
be compared with existing gravity models.    
 
References 
 
Anderson J. E. (2010). The Gravity model. NBER Working Paper Series, pages: 47.  
Anderson J. E. (1979). A theoretical foundation for the gravity equation, American Economic 
Review 69, pp. 106-116. 
Anderson, J. E.,  van Wincoop, E. (2003). Gravity with Gravitas, American Economic Review, 
93, pp. 170-92. 
Baier, S. L., Bergstrand, J. H. (2009). Bonus Vetus OLS: A Simple Method for 
Approximating International Trade-Cost Efects using the Gravity Equation, Journal of 
International Economics, vol. 77, no. 1. 
Bergstrand J. H. (1985). The Gravity Equation in International Trade: Some Microeconomic 
Foundations and Empirical Evidence, Review of Economics and Statistics, vol. 67, no. 3, 
pp. 474-481. 
Bridgat. (2013). [online]. Available from: http://countries.bridgat.com 
Helpman, E., Melitz, M.J. and Rubinstein, Y. (2008). Estimating Trade Flows: Trading 
Partners and Trading Volumes, Quarterly Journal of Economics, 123, pp. 441-487. 
International Monetary Fund (IMF). (2013). [online]. Available from: http://www.imf.org. 
Timeanddate. (2013). [online]. Available from: http://www.timeanddate.com/worldclock/ 
Tinbergen, J. (1962). Shaping the World Economy: Suggestions for an International 
Economic Policy. New York: The Twentieth Century Fund. 


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