Pearl millet (Pennisetum americanum [L.] Leeke) and sorghum (Sorghum bicolor [L.] Moench) can suffer from poor stand establishment under conditions of high soil temperature and water stresses. A line source sprinkler irrigation system and a charcoal pit technique were used to evaluate stand establishment and high correlations existed between the two methods. It may be possible to use the charcoal pit technique as a predictive tool in drought resistance breeding programs

Diaby, M

O'Neill, M K

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J. Agronomy and Crop Science 159, 192-198 (1987) O 1987 Paul Parey Scientific Publishers, Berlin and Hamburg ISSN 0931 -2250 International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics ( I C R I S A T ) ,  Patancheru P .O.  Andhra Pradesh, 502 324, Indza (Journal Article N o .  JA462) Effects of High Soil Temperature and Water Stresses on Malian Pearl Millet and Sorghum during Seedling Stage M .  K. O'NI:ILL and M. DIAHY Authors' addresses: Dr. MICIIAI:L K. O 'NEI I  L, Senior Agronomist, Development Alternatives, Inc., B. P. 872, Niamey, Niger and Dr. MAMADY DIABY, Section de Recherche sur les Cultures Vivricres et Oleagineuses (SRCVO), B.P. 438, Bamako, Mali. Wlth 3 figures and 3 tables Ketrzved October 1, 1986, atcepted November 28, 1986 Abstract Pearl millet (I'enrzisetum arnericanum [L.] Lrrke) and sorghum (Sorghum bicolor [L.] Moench) can suffer from poor stand cstablishrncnt under conditions of high soil temperature and water stresses. A line source sprinkler irrigation system and a charcoal pit technique werc used to evaluate stand establishment and high correlations existed bctwecn the two mcthods. It may be possible to use the charcoal pit technique as a predictive tool in drought resistance breeding programs. Key words: I-'cnnzsetum arnertwnurn ( L . )  Leeke, Sorghum bztolor (L.) Moench, drought stress, evapotranspl- ration, watcr use. Llrought and crop cstablishrnent arc thc two  major priorities for  millet and sorghum improvement in the low rainfall zones of West Africa ( H o u s ~ .  1982). This area is characterized by intermittent periods of moisture stress and high radiation loads which can have disastrous effects upon  crop production,  particularly when thcy occur during the  seedling stage (GS- 1) .  Yield reductions, caused by incomplete stand establishment due  t o  high soil tempera- tures and moisture stress, are common (PEACOCK 1982). T h c  line source sprinkler irrigation system (LS), as developed by  HANKS et al. (1976), has been used extensively to  investigate various aspects of moisture stress effects on  such diverse crops as sugarbeets (MILLER and HANG 1980), grain legumes (PANDEI. et al. 1984), sor-  ghum (O'NEILI .  et  al. 1983), rice (0 'Toor . r  and NAMU<:O 1983), and wheat (HANG and MILLER 1983). This  technique provides the  application of a continuously decreasing gradient of water f rom the  LS t o  the extremities of the  experi- mental plot, which enables researchers t o  bet- ter understand the  development and effects of moisture stress. T h e  interactive effects of high soil tempera- ture  and moisture stresses upon  germination and stand establishment are difficult t o  sepa- rate in the  field. To investigate the  effects of high soil temperatures during early growth,  a technique has been developed at  I C R I S A T  in which a thin layer of powdered charcoal o r  kaolin is spread evenly over the soil t o  modify soil temperatures ( V i l ' l ~ . s o ~  et  al. 1982). T h e y  have demonstrated differential emergence of sorghum cultivars under high soil temperature  stress. T h e  present s tudy was conducted t o  test screening procedures used t o  evaluate t h e  response of pearl millet and sorghum varieties t o  moisture and high soil temperature stresses during GS-1 in Mali. T h e  LS system w a s  cho-  sen as a field screening method t o  subject  U.S. Copyright Clcarancc Ccntcl- Code Starerncnt: 0931 -2250/87/5903-0192$02.50/0 on Malian Pearl Millet and Sorghum 193 Effects of High Soil Temperature and Water Stresses Malian varieties of millet and sorghum to moisture stress and charcoal pits (CP) were used to subject the same varieties to high soil surface tcmpcraturc stress. It was also prop- osed to invcstigatc the corrclation of results obtained in the pits with those obtained in thc field. Methods and Materials The study was conducted at the Cinzana Agricul- tural Experiment Station (near Segou, Mali) during March and April, 1984, the period of the year with maximum solar radiation. The station, located between the Bani and Niger Rivers in the 700 mni mcan annual rainfall zone (VIRMANI,  REDDY, and C )sl 1980), was developed as the major research site or the Sahclian zone of Mali. There are five major soils on the station; that used in the present study was a loamy sand (83 74, sand) of the Oxic Haplaus- tali family with an average gravimetric water holding capacity of 13 '7; in the upper 30 cm. Cation exchange capacity was low (4.2 meq 100 g ' j  and p H  averaged 5.6. Two LS systeriis were installed, one each for millet and sorghum, after a uniform preplant irrigation of 13 nim. The systems were oriented in an east-west ciircction \vith eight replications of sixteen entries in . A a randomized block design. Kain gauges wcrc located in each replication at 0, 1.5, 4.5, 7.5, 10.5, and 13.5 In frorti, and perpendicular to, the I.S. These five positions represented the five water appli- cation treatments. I>~aminonium phosphate was banded at a rate of 42, 46 N, I' kl: ha-' tour d ~ v s  betore planting. I-'ivc seeds of rnillrt and sorghum were hand planted in pockets spaced every 20 cm on March 1 1  and 12, respectively, and Furadan (Car- bofuran; 2, 3-dihydro-2, 2-dimethylbenzofurat~-7- !.I- niethylcarbamatc) was incorporated for insect ,ntrol. Single entries were planted per row In rows P aced at 75 cm tntervals. Pockets were thinned to one plant per pocket between growth stage 1 and 2 (VANIILRLII' and Krk\+s 1972). Each LS system was run every third day during the cveninc when wind velocities wcrc relativelv low. The period of water application was sufficient to  replace mol\turc lost through maximum rvapo- transp~ration ( L ~ ~ o R ~ N B ~ ~  and K A S A M  1979) In the hlgh water application treatment during the prevtous three davs. Soil temperatures were measured at depths I, 5, and 10 cni with an insertion probe thermocouple in each irrigation treatment and all revlications between 13.00 and 15.00 h local time. Measurements were taken in the seedbed prior to, and on the day following, an irrigation at similar distances from the LS as the rain gauges. Plant populations in each of the five water application treatmcnts were determined after thinning and final population counts were taken one day prior to har- vest. Two plants per treatment were harvested 37 days after planting (DAP), dried in the sun to con- stant weight and dry weights were determined. Concurrently, four pits werc dug and cement floors and block walls were constructed with an inside dimension of 240 x 240 x 40 cm. The inside walls and floor were lined with plastic to enable accurate water application and prevent moisture loss. Each pit was then filled to 30 cm with the same soil used in the ficld test to  a bulk density of 1.65 g cm-'. The resulting pit soil surface was even with that of the surrounding field surface. Millet and sorghum of the same varieties used in the LS test were planted in I-m rows, 3 cm deep in four replications of a ran- domized block design at a rate of 50 seeds per meter on April 2, 1984. Each block was irrigated with 45 nim of water, sufficient to  bring the upper 1 5  cm of soil to field capacity, and a 0.5-cm covering of powdered charcoal was spread evenly over the sur- face. Data wcre taken of seed germination and vit- riosiry (endospcrm corneousness) in the laboratory (HOUSE 1982). and of emergence, vigor (MAITI et al. 1981) at emergence, and survival at 10 D A P  in the CI'. There was a 3.7-mm rain during the evening of I O D A P  so vigor scores of recovered surviving plants were taken on 11 D A P  (MAITI et al. 1981). Soil temperatures at I ,  5, and 10 cm were measured each day of the I I-day experiment between 13.30 and 14.30 11 and maximum unshaded air temperature measured IO cm above the soil surface was recorded at the agrometeorological station 0.5 k n ~  from the CP and LS test sites. Results and Discussion Environment Environmental conditions during the 37-day study were extreme with maximum tempcra- tures averaging 39 "C (Table 1).  Pan evapora- tion ranged from 8.2 to 19.6 mm day-' with a mcan of 14.0 mm day-', rather high due to advection. Potential evapotranspiration (ETP) was calculated by the Penman method (GOM- brrs 1983) and by using pan coefficients as suggested by DCICIRENBOS and KASSAM (1979). The two methods diffcred by only 0.1 mm day-' when averaged over the total experimen- tal period, with similar maximum and minimum rn;es. Maximum evapotranspiration (ETmax), that quantity of water required by crops during various stages of growth, was calculated using ETP and crop coefficients ranging from 0.40 at planting to  0.84 for millet and 0.77 for sorghum at 37 DAP (DOORENBOS Effects of High Soil Temperature and Water Stresses on Malian Pearl Millet and Sorghum 195 60,- A )  Millet south L___I___I-I_____L-- L-1 1 I _L-l_--u 0 .33  0 . 4 6  0 .59 0 .72  0.85 0.98 1 .11  r Water/i: TT(rnax) flig. 2 .  Grouped rcgression lincs of mean  dry wcight of: A)  millet and B) sorghum a5 a function of total water applied during the 37-day study and the ratiu of total wxer applied to cumulative ~naxinium cvapotranspira- tion. Number of 1,arietics out of 16 which each linc represents is given nt the right of the line Mean dry weight of two plants from each treatment was regressed against total water applied during the 37 days of the study (Fig. 2). An indication of the dcgrcc of mois- ture stress is given on the secondary abcissa as the ratio oi total water applied to cumulated ETmax. Diffcrcnccs in plant populations, which could affect water utilization by indi- vidual plants, was initially included in the - -~lysis .  Thcre was no  significant improve- - nt of the analysis when percent population was used so all calculations were done with dry plant weight. 'Two separate response groups for millet and four for sorghum were identified by combining entries with lines of similar slopes and intercepts (Fig. 2). Growth of 14 of the 16 millet varieties was similar with respect to  water application. The response of sorghum was more diverse; there was one superior sor- ghum variety, three others above average, and one bclow (Fig. 2). Millet generally produced more dry matter than sorghum at all levels of water application. At a water application rate of 50 "/o cumulative ETmax, millet dry matter was three times greater than that of the best sorghum entries. All entries were Malian varie- tics but millets have tended to d o  better in similar sandy soils whereas the rever5e has been true on heavier soils (SI K,II IN1 1983). Charcoal Pit Test Daily soil tcmperatures for nlillet at 1,  5, and I0 cm with charcoal applications are represent- ed in Figure 3. Initial soil temperatures were lower than unshaded air temperatures because of evaporative cooling after irrigation. Surface temperatures rose to  60 "C at 7 DAP and remained near there until a rain occurred at the end of the pried (Fig. 3). Temperature5 at 5 cm (Z cm deeper than planting depth) re- ached 47 "C at emergence and tcmperatures in the planting zone must have been around 50 "C at that time. Temperatures at 5 cm and maximum unscreened air temperature reached similar values at 3 DAP. Maximum percent emergence for millet in the CP was 59 'YO, not significantly different from the local check (CMM 374) c1r the mean (Table 2). Thcrc was a 17 and 19 '20 loss of population between emergence and day 10 f o r  the check and best millet entry, respectively. The stand of the poorest entry decreased by 196 O'NFILL. and D I A B ~  Charcoal  p i t  3 . 7  mrn M i l l e t  1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1 1 2  Days a f t e r  p l a n t i n g  Fig. 3. Mean soil temperatures taken between 13.30 and 14.30 h at 1, 5, and 1C cm and unshaded maxim air temperature as a function of time in the millet charcoal pit. Emergence (E) was at 5 DAI', final surv~var vigor was determined after 3.7 mm of ram during the evening of 10 DAP 36 % compared to the mean reduction oj scores, both s ~ g n i t ~ ~ a ~ i t i \  be tcr than  thc ~ i l c ~ r i  22 %. Both the local check and the best entry and worst entry (laboratory germinat~on for recovered and appeared vigorous after 3.6 mm worst sorghum entry: 59 ' X , )  but their stand of rain d u r ~ n g  the evening of 10 DAP. Thc was reduced 29 and 30 %, respectively. Their local sorghum check (CSM 205) and best cntr! survival vigor score was good, especially when had a very good percent emergence and vigor compared to thc mean or  the w o n t  entry. Table 2. Responses of various parameters of 16 millet and sorghum varieties to high temperature stress in charcoal pits Entry Emergence Emergence Sunrival Survival Vitri- (%I ) vigor day 10 vigor osiry (1-5)" ( O X , )  day 11 ( I - s )~  Millets Check (CMM 374) Maximum Minimum S.E. -t Mean Sorghum Check (CSM 205) Maximum Minimum S.E. + Mean " Ranking 1 to  5 with 1 being superior (MAITI, RAJU, and BII~INGEK 1981). Ranking 1 to  5 with 1 being superior (HOUSE 1982). S.E. does not refer to  these values. Effects of High Soil Temperature and Water Stresses on Malian Pearl Millet and Sorghum 197 Table 3. Correlations for various parameters of 16 miller and sorghum varieties between responses in charcoal pits and in the low water application treatment of a field line source irrigation gradient Field Emergence Survival Dry Weight Pits (%) (yo) (g plant' ') Millet Emergence ('YO) Emergence vigor Survival ('XI) Survival vigor Vitriosity Sorghum Emergence ( % I )  Emergence vigor Survival (Yo) $urvival vigor Vitrios~ty Charcoal Pits vs. Line Source Correlations of entry responses in rhc C P  to those of the LS in the low water application . . treatment are presented in Table 3. Except for the highly significant correlation for vitriosity vs. dry weight, there arc no biologically signi- ficant relationships for the millet entries. This is not surprising given the lack of diffcrenccs among millet varieties in the field (Fig. I )  and the high mean survival in thc CP (Tablc 2). The millet varieties were selected from local material adapted to heat and moisture stresses. rghum, on the other hand, selected from a - )re diverse rangc of germplasm, demonstra- I highly significant correlations (p < 0.01) ..,tween the two tests for all responses except percent emergence vs. dry weight, which was significant at the 5 'Yo level, and vitriosity vs. dry weight. Negative correlations for vigor and vitriosity were expected because they were ranked from 1 to 5 with 1 being superior. Thc very high correlation of sorghum survi- val in the CP verses field emergence, survival, and dry weight production suggest the CP may be used as a screening method for the combi- ned effects of high soil temperature and mois- season, no  sophisticated equipment is needed to  increase soil temperatures. And finally, the method reasonably evaluates the probable field during GS-1 of a range of mate- rial given an adequate potential range of re- sponses to high soil temperature and moisture stress. Zusammenfassung Die Einfliisse hoher Bodentemperaturen und von Wasserstrei3 auf malianische Perlhirse und Sorghum wahrend des Samlingssta- d' lums Perlhirse (Penn~setum arnencantlm [L.] Lceke) und Sorghum (Soughurrr bicolor [L.] Moench) konnen unter schlechtem Aufgang unter den Bedingungen hoher Bodentemperatur und Wasserstrefl leidcn. Ein Beregnersystem und eine Kohle-Abdcck-Technik wurden verwen- det, um den Aufgdng des Bestandes zu beurtei- len; cs war eine straffe Korrelatioli zwischen den beiden Mcthoden nachzuweisen. Es konn- te moglich sein, die Kohle-Abdeck-Technik als cin Vorhersageverfahren in Ziichtungspro- grammen fiir Durreresistenz zu vcrwenden. - ture stress. The method is rapid; several runs can be made during the hot season from early Acknowledgements March through late May. The method is easy; The authors would like to express their thanks to given the high temperatures during the hot Drs. 0. N I O N G A D O ,  SRCVO/Mali Millet Breeder; J .  Agronomy 8: Crop Science, Vol. 159 (3) 14 198 O'NEILL and DIABY, Effects of High Soil Temperature and Water Stresses J .  F. S(:HEURIWG, ICRISAT/Mali Cereal Breeder; and K.  V. RAMAIAI-I, lCRISAT/Burkina Faso Striga Physiologist for providing germplasm and to Messrs. DIHY DIAFIT~  and MAKANO COULIBAI.Y, SKCVOI Mali Ingenieur and Moniteur, respectively, without whose able work, this project would not have been completed. This research was made possible by a grant to ICKISAT/hlali by USAID. Literature Cited DOORENHOS, J. ,  and A.  H. KI\SSAM, 1979: Yield response to  water. In F A 0  irrigation and drainage paper N o .  33. Komc, Italy: F A O .  GO~IMES, R.  A., 1983: Pocket computers in agrometeorology. In F A 0  plant production and protection paper N o .  45. Komc, Italy: FyAO. HANG,  AN N.,  and D. F.. 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Effects of High Soil Temperature and Water Stresses on Malian Pearl Millet and Sorghum during Seedling Stage

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