This study assessed perception of hazards from cooking fuels in building indoor environment. One hundred questionnaires were randomly administered to selected households in high density settlement of Zaria metropolis with 96% response rate received. Results showed that females are dominant (83%) users of cooking fuels, kerosene (48.1%) and firewood (29.2%) are common types of cooking fuel use by the households. Factors that determine the use of these fuels are cost (28.2%) and types of stove (19.8%). Awareness level of associated hazards is high (62.5%) and frequency of health problems associated with pollutants (39.6%) is alarming. Opening of windows (47.9%) and isolation of cooking area from living area (42.7%) were the common control measures adopted. It is recommended that public enlightenment on health issues relating to indoor air pollution should be emphasized, as well as implementing codes for control of pollution in the indoor environment

Dadu, DW

Joshua, IA

Stanley, AM

Uchenna, ER

English

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Nigerian Journal of Technology  Vol. 32, No. 3, November 2013            550                   PERCEPTION OF HAZARDS ASSOCIATED WITH COOKING FUEL IN BUILDING INDOOR ENVIRONMENT  A. M. Stanley1, D. W. Dadu2, I. A. Joshua3, E. R. Uchenna4 1, 2, 4 DEPARTMENT OF BUILDING, AHMADU BELLO UNIVERSITY, ZARIA. NIGERIA 3 DEPARTMENT OF COMMUNITY MEDICINE, KADUNA STATE UNIVERSITY, KADUNA. NIGERIA E-mail addresses: 1 stanleywond@yahoo.com, 2 wurim2004@yahoo.co.uk, 3 dristifanus@yahoo.com,  4 roseslim@yahoo.com Abstract This study assessed perception of hazards from cooking fuels in building indoor environment. One hundred questionnaires were randomly administered to selected households in high density settlement of Zaria metropolis with 96% response rate received. Results showed that females are dominant (83%) users of cooking fuels, kerosene (48.1%) and firewood (29.2%) are common types of cooking fuel use by the households. Factors that determine the use of these fuels are cost (28.2%) and types of stove (19.8%). Awareness level of associated hazards is high (62.5%) and frequency of health problems associated with pollutants (39.6%) is alarming. Opening of windows (47.9%) and isolation of cooking area from living area (42.7%) were the common control measures adopted. It is recommended that public enlightenment on health issues relating to indoor air pollution should be emphasized, as well as implementing codes for control of pollution in the indoor environment.  Keywords: perception, households, cooking fuel, hazard, indoor environment  1. Introduction Indoor air pollutants have been rated as the highest killer compared to malaria and poor sanitation in developing countries [1]. It is estimated to have claimed 1.6 million lives annually, mainly children and women [2], who spend most part of their time (80 – 85%) indoors preparing family meals [3]. Most households in the developing countries rely mainly on traditional fuels such as firewood, charcoal, bagasse (sugar cane waste), animal and vegetable wastes [4]. These fuels are responsible for respiratory infections in children under 5 years of age and also cause other ailments such as Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD), lung cancer, asthma, tuberculosis, heart disease, irritation of the eyes, nose and throat, headaches, dizziness and fatigue [1][6][7].Gas, electricity, solar energy etc. are some prominent and modern sources of energy for household use which are not common in most developing countries due to cost, culture, accessibility and other challenges [8]. Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) is a significant factor that affects human health and productivity [9]. Most human exposure to pollutants occurs indoors [10], yet people have docile attitudes towards the quality of the indoor environment [11]. These attitudes might be due to poor knowledge of the indoor and the environment surrounding it [12]. This study aims at assessing the perception and awareness level of building occupants on poor indoor air quality associated with cooking fuels in buildings with a view to enlightening households on the need to improve the quality of the indoor environment.  2. Methodology Review of relevant literatures were carried out in the subject area. This was followed by the administration of a structured questionnaire to one hundred (100) households randomly selected in Zaria metropolis of Kaduna State. The study was cross sectional descriptive in nature carried out between May and July 2012. Some of the issues the questionnaire seek to know included household fuel type, factors that determine their use, cooking characteristics, awareness of associated pollutants, level of exposure to pollutants and control measures. Checklist was also used to assess the ventilation provided in the cooking areas and the stove location. Data obtained from the survey were analysed using Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) version 16. The results are presented in tabular form.  3. Results and Discussion One hundred (100) questionnaires were administered to households in Zaria metropolis and 96 were retrieved giving a response rate of 96%.    Nigerian Journal of Technology (NIJOTECH) Vol. 32. No. 3. November 2013, pp. 550 – 555  Copyright© Faculty of Engineering,  University of Nigeria, Nsukka, ISSN: 1115-8443 www.nijotech.com  HAZARDS ASSOCIATED WITH COOKING FUEL IN BUILDING INDOOR ENVIRONMENT,  A. M Stanley, et al  Nigerian Journal of Technology  Vol. 32, No. 3, November 2013            551 Table 1: Respondents socio-demographic characteristics (N= 96) Variable Frequency Percentage Sex Male Female  16 80  17.0 83.0 Age group (in years) <20 21- 30 31- 40 >40  7 31 16 42  7.3 32.3 16.7 43.8 Marital status Married  Single Widow  55 37 4  59.3 38.5 4.2 Level of education No formal education Primary Secondary Tertiary  6 3 18 69  6.3 3.1 18.8 71.9 Occupation Business Civil  service Others  36 45 15  37.5 46.9 15.6 Family size < 4 4- 5 6- 7 8- 9 >9  24 24 30 10 8  25.0 25.0 31.3 10.4 8.3 Monthly income(in N *)  5,000 5000- 20,000 20001- 50000 >50000  6 19 27 44  6.3 19.8 28.1 45.8 *1$= N160  Table 1 shows the respondents’ profile. It can be observed that majority of the respondents with the highest frequency of 83.0% are females. This result is not unconnected with the fact that in most African culture, female are the dominant gender in household activities. This could also be the reason why women are more exposed to indoor air pollution than male as observed in similar studies [2][3].Most of the respondents’ ages were above 21 years. This shows that the cooking activities are carried out by adults. The table also shows that 59.3% are married, 71.9% have attended tertiary institution, 46.9% are civil servants and 37.5% business owners. These show that most respondents are well educated and have source of income to determine the choice of their household fuel type. The same table also shows that majority of the households with the highest frequency of 31.3% are made up of 6 members in a family. This is a clear picture of African setup made of at least six and above members in a home and their monthly income is above N50,000 (with the highest frequency of 45.8%). These results show that the family can at least afford the cheapest form of clean energy [13].  Table 2: Fuel type and factors that determine its use (N= 96) Variable Frequency Percentage Fuel type Firewood Charcoal Kerosene Gas Electricity  28 4 47 15 2  29.2 4.2 48.1 15.6 2.1 Types of stove used by Households Kerosene Electric Gas cooker Mud oven Others   51 8 16 11 10   53.1 8.3 16.7 11.5 10.4 Factors that determine the use of fuel type Cost of fuel Available stove  Accessibility to fuel Characteristics of stove Cooking practices Cultural preferences Potential health impacts Taste of food   27 19 10 6 9 6 14 5   28.1 19.8 10.4 6.3 9.4 6.3 14.6 5.2  Table 2 shows that the common type of cooking fuels use by majority of the households is kerosene with highest frequency of 48.1%, while 29.2% and 15.7% use firewood and gas respectively. This could be associated with the availability and to some extent affordability of kerosene as shown in Also majority of the respondents (53.1%) use kerosene stove, while the least frequency of 8.3% use electric stove. The use of kerosene dominates households’ fuel usage while the use of electricity is low; which could be connected to the epileptic nature of power supply in the country and its high cost [14]. A number of the households {28 (29.2%)} use firewood which could be alarming because it is associated with health risk. Table 2 also shows the factors that determine the choice of household cooking fuel, 27(28.1%) with the highest frequency ascertained that cost of fuel is a major factor considered, while 19(19.8%) ascertained that the available stove type determine their choice of fuel, 10(10.4%) ascertained that accessibility to fuel is a factor. Others are technical characteristics of the stove and cultural preference (6.3%), cooking practices (9.4%) and health impacts associated with the fuel (14.6%). However, the least frequency of 5.2% chooses the type of fuel based on the taste of food prepared by it. It is evident that cost of fuel is among the factors that determine the choice of fuel for cooking in households. HAZARDS ASSOCIATED WITH COOKING FUEL IN BUILDING INDOOR ENVIRONMENT,  A. M Stanley, et al  Nigerian Journal of Technology  Vol. 32, No. 3, November 2013            552  Table 3: Cooking and cooking space characteristics (N=96) Variable  Frequency Percentage Frequency of cooking per day 1 2 3 4 >4   3 29 58 5 1   3.1 30.2 60.4 5.2 1.0 Daily No of hours spent to cook (in hrs) < 2 2- 3 4- 5 >5   36 44 9 13   37.5 45.8 9.4 7.3 Type of cooking area Kitchen Living area Outdoors Others  70 4 21 1  72.9 4.2 21.9 1.0 Ventilation type provided Open window Open door only Eave space  72 14 10  75.0 14.3 10.4 Floor area for the cooking space(m2) < 2 2- 3 3.1- 4 4.1- 5 >5   8 25 29 24 10   8.3 26.0 30.2 5.0 10.4 Window area available in the cooking area (mm) 1500 × 1500 1200 × 1200 900 × 900 600 × 600 Others   26 27 27 12 5   27.0 28.0 28.0 12.0 5.0  From Table 3 above, majority of the respondent (60.4%) cook three times a day and spend between  2 – 3hours (45.9%) preparing the meals. It is therefore, evident that the respondents are exposed to air pollutants from cooking fuel for a long time. This is worrisome as ill-health is associated with exposure to long time indoor air pollutants [2][15][16].  Also cooking space characteristics shows that kitchen was used by most households with frequency of 70.0%, while 21.9% use outdoors and 4.2% use the living area. Also from the table, majority of the respondent 75.0% use open windows ventilation, while 10.4% use eave of the building. The highest frequency of 91.7% has a floor area greater than 2m2 and 88.0% with window size of 0.81m2 and above. It is evident that there is adequate provision for ventilation in most of the households’ cooking spaces.  Table 4: Awareness of indoor air pollution and perceived level of pollutants emitted into the house (N= 96)   Table 4 shows the level of awareness of indoor air pollutant by the respondents. It can be deduced that majority of the respondents are quite aware of indoor air pollution (62.5%) and are also aware that cooking fuels emit pollutants (70%). It is evident that there is high awareness of pollutants emission from cooking fuels in the indoor environment as also observed in similar study [17].  Majority of the households with the highest frequency of 46.9% perceive insignificant level of pollutants in the indoor, however, 10.4% perceived high pollutants emission from cooking fuel. It is established that there is insignificant pollutants emission in the households, however, the presence of the pollutants indoor necessitate the adoption of strategies to reduce this since it is health related problems (Table 4). From Table 5, majority (77%) of the respondents are aware that pollutants from cooking fuel are detrimental to health, only 23% are not aware. Respondents who had ill-health challenges as result of pollution was 39.6%, however 60.4% had no health problem. The highest symptom observed was eye irritations with the frequency of 65.5%. Only 2.6% have been hospitalized due to pollution associated with cooking fuels. It is therefore evident that the effect of the pollutants in the study area is irritation of the eye which was also observed in similar study [18].  Table 5: Perceived health related issues associated with indoor pollutants from cooking fuel Variable Frequency Percentage Awareness of indoor air pollutants from cooking       Variable Frequency Percentage Awareness of indoor air pollution Yes No   60 36   62.5 37.5 Awareness of pollutants from  cooking fuel Yes No   67 29   70.0 30.0 Perceived level of indoor air pollution High Moderate Low Not significant   10 9 32 45   10.4 9.4 33.3 46.9 HAZARDS ASSOCIATED WITH COOKING FUEL IN BUILDING INDOOR ENVIRONMENT,  A. M Stanley, et al  Nigerian Journal of Technology  Vol. 32, No. 3, November 2013            553 Variable Frequency Percentage fuel detrimental to health (n= 96) Yes No  74 22  77.0 23.0 Had ill-health as a result of pollutants from cooking  fuel (N=96) Yes No    38 58    39.6 60.4 Symptom(s) experienced  as a result of pollutants from cooking fuel(N=55) Irritation of the eyes Fatigue Headache Sneezing and coughing    36 3 2 14    65.5 5.5 3.6 25.5 Hospitalized as a result of pollutants from cooking fuel ( N=38) Yes No    1 37    2.6 97.4  Figure 1, the factors that contribute to indoor air pollution from cooking fuel were assessed. It was observed that 32.3% perceived fuel type contributes to indoor air pollution, while 28.1% attributed it to poor ventilation in the indoor environment. However, Table 3 shows that there is adequate provision of windows for ventilation. It is therefore, evident that fuel type is a factor that contributes to the indoor air pollution which agrees with the findings [16]. Figure 2 shows the different control measures adopted by the respondents for indoor air pollution. Majority with frequency of 47.9% adopt opening of windows to expel pollutants from the building, while 42.7% isolate the cooking space from the living area. Figure 3 shows respondents suggestions on measures that can be taken to control indoor air pollution from cooking fuel. Majority with frequency of 63.5% suggest public enlightenment as a means to reduce the problem, while 16.7% suggest implementation of code for indoor environmental pollution control. From the study, majority of the respondents perceived that public enlightenment will enhance households’ knowledge on the control measures of indoor air pollutants.  4. Conclusion Kerosene stove has been associated with most cooking activities in which the household’s monthly income is above N50,000. The use of this fuel has been associated with its affordability and availability. The use of fuel exposes the households to air pollutants from cooking fuels for long periods of time resulting to ill-health associated with long time indoor pollutants exposures. There is high awareness level of indoor air pollutants associated with cooking fuel in the building indoor environment, however most perceived insignificant pollutants concentration from the kerosene stove. Most households adopt the use of adequate windows opening for ventilation to reduce pollutants concentration. Public enlightenment has been suggested as a means to educate users on the proper way to use cooking fuel in the indoor environment.    Figure 1: Perceived factors that contribute to indoor pollution from cooking fuel (N=96)  32.328.16.33.115.63.111.50 5 10 15 20 25 30 35type of fuelpoor ventilationfloor plan of the buildingseasonstove typeoutdoor  climatetemp & humdityPercentage (%) Perceived factor HAZARDS ASSOCIATED WITH COOKING FUEL IN BUILDING INDOOR ENVIRONMENT,  A. M Stanley, et al  Nigerian Journal of Technology  Vol. 32, No. 3, November 2013            554  Figure 2: Control measures adopted for indoor air pollution (N= 96)     KEY AEU  =  Air Exchanger Use  ILVF =  Installing Local Ventilation Facilities  PE = Public Enlightenment  IOCFIEPC = Implementation of Code for Indoor Environmental Pollution Control  Figure 3: Other perceived control measures (N= 96)   References [1] Smith, K.R., Mehta, S. and Maeusezahl-Fenz, R. “Indoor Air Pollution from Household Use of Solid Fuels”. [Online] Available from http://ehs.sph.berkeley.edu /krsmith/Publications/Chapt%2018%20IAP%20from%20Solid%20Fuels.pdf,2003[accessed 17th May, 2009].  [2] Smith K.R. et al “Indoor Air Pollution in Developing Countries and Acute Lower Respiratory Infections in Children” Thorax, Vol55 Number 6, 2000, pp 518-532.  [3]WHO “Fuel for Life: Household Energy and Health”, [Online] Available at www.who.int/indoorair /publications/fuelforlife.pdf, 2006, (Accessed, 13 Dec, 2012).  [4] Heltberg, R. “Household Fuel and Energy Use in Developing Countries - A Multicountry Study”, [Online] Available at http://siteresources. worldbank.org/INTPSIA/Resources/490023-1120845825946/FuelUseMulticountryStudy_05.pdf,2003, (Accessed, 13 Dec, 2012).  [5]Trek, S. “Traditional Fuel” [Online] Available at http://www.worldmapper.org/posters/worldmapp42.747.93.14.22.1Isolation of cooking area from living roomproviding adequate window openinguse of air  exchangerby installing local exhaust ventilation facilitesothers63.516.713.56.30 10 20 30 40 50 60 70PEIOCFIEPCILVFAEUSeries1HAZARDS ASSOCIATED WITH COOKING FUEL IN BUILDING INDOOR ENVIRONMENT,  A. M Stanley, et al  Nigerian Journal of Technology  Vol. 32, No. 3, November 2013            555 er_map109_ver5.pdf, 2006, (Accessed, 13th December, 2012)  [6] United State Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) “An Introduction to Indoor Air Quality”, [Online] Available @ http://www.epa.gov/iaq/ co.html, 2009.  [7] White, L. and Marchant, P. “An Overview of Residential Indoor Air Problems” Department of Health, Washington, 2009.  [8] Smith K.R. “Fuel Combustion, Air Pollution Exposure, and Health: The Situation in Developing Countries”, Annu. Rev. Energy Environ. Vol18, 1993, pp529–566.  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Perception of Hazards Associated with Cooking Fuel in Building Indoor Environment

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Perception of Hazards Associated with Cooking Fuel in Building Indoor Environment

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