What could an ecological dynamics rationale offer Quiet Eye research? Comment on Vickers

In this commentary, we respond to suggestions in previous Quiet Eye (QE) research that future work is needed to understand how theories of ecological psychology and nonlinear dynamics might frame empirical and practical work. We raise questions on the assumptions behind an information processing explanation for programming of parameters such as duration, onsets and offsets of QE, and we concur with previous calls for more research considering how visual search behaviours, such as QE, emerge under interacting personal, task and environmental constraints. However, initial work needs to frame a more general ecological dynamics explanation for QE, capturing how a process-oriented approach is needed to address how perceived affordances and adaptive functional variability might shape emergent coordination tendencies, including QE, in individual performers

Towards a Model of Olympic Social Capital : Theory and Early Evidence

Towards a model of Olympic social capital: Theory and early evidence Social capital in sports has become an increasingly studied topic. In particular, it has been argued that social capital is created by value-based cultural practices and social exchanges with respect to sport participation and sporting events. However, empirical evidence is scarce and does not capture causal relationships in the process of social capital creation. A general criticism in the social capital literature is that the existing theory falls short of modelling causalities in more detail. Therefore, this paper attempts to develop a causal model of social capital formation within the Olympic movement. It is an exemplary case because of the global esteem of the Olympic Games and their value foundation in Olympism. The worldwide awareness of the Olympics moreover creates social capital among spectators. However, the process of how the perception of Olympic values by spectators is transformed into Olympic social capital is not well understood. Thus, the theoretical modelling focuses on the so-called bridging capital accumulated by Olympic spectators. It is reasoned that the interrelationship of the three Olympic key values of respect, friendship and excellence is perceived and adopted by live spectators via a cyclic process of simultaneous experience resulting in a sustainable episodic memory. In contrast, broadcast spectators develop a dichotomous semantic memory, more influenced by socio-economic tensions caused by the commodification of the Olympic value of excellence. Hence, the live Olympic capital tends to be larger than the broadcast Olympic capital. The plausibility of the model’s propositions is illustrated by data from a cluster sample (N=1,703) of German broadcast spectators of and visitors to the 2016 Summer Olympics and 2016 Winter Youth Olympic Games. The basic proposition of the larger live Olympic capital is confirmed, while the evidence for the emotional exposure and socio-economic environment when experiencing the event is mixed

Monitoring body temperature during moderate intensity exercise and inactive recovery in the cold: a pilot study

Exposure to cold ambient conditions during outdoor recreation can lead to significant heat loss. It is unknown how fast body temperature decreases or how fast a person could become hypothermic in cold temperatures. We present a series of pilot tests involving moderate intensity exercise and inactive recovery in the cold to monitor how body temperature changes with exposure to -10°C. The primary aim of this pilot study was to test the feasibility of the proposed protocol with the intention to design a main study. The primary questions were: (i) to what degree does body temperature increase or decrease with this protocol, (ii) whether epitympanic temperature is a suitable measure of core temperature using a recently developed, non-invasive device and (iii) if participants are able to tolerate the cold during inactive recovery. This pilot series included seven participants. After an acclimatization phase (15 minutes), participants exercised at 60% peak heart rate (20 minutes) followed by a seated, inactive recovery phase (15 minutes) in the cold. The mean ambient conditions were -10.0±0.4°C and 66.1±8.6% relative humidity and no wind. The primary findings based on the feasibility criteria were that body temperature increased while exercising at an intensity of 60% HRpeak and decreased during inactive recovery by -0.3±0.1°C (epitympanic temperature). Secondly, the agreement between epitympanic and esophageal temperature (mean difference 0.2°C, 95% confidence interval -0.5 to 0.0, p=0.095) was better than in previous studies. Finally, all participants were able to tolerate the cold and complete the study despite thermal discomfort and shivering in the recovery phase. This protocol was successful in showing small changes in body temperature during exercise and recovery in the cold, though some modifications to the current protocol are recommended to elicit a larger effect size

Functional Relevance of the Small Muscles Crossing the Ankle Joint

It has been suggested that increasing muscle strength could help reducing the frequency of running injuries and that a top-down approach using an increase in hip muscle strength will result in a reduced range of movement and reduced external moments at the knee and ankle level. This paper suggests, that a bottom-up approach using an increase of strength of the small muscles crossing the ankle joint, should reduce movement and loading at the ankle, knee and hip. This bottom-up approach is discussed in detail in this paper from a conceptional point of view. The ankle joint has two relatively “large” extrinsic muscles and seven relatively small extrinsic muscles. The large muscles have large levers for plantar-dorsi flexion but small levers for pro-supination. In the absence of strong small muscles the large muscles are loaded substantially when providing balancing with respect to pro-supination. Specifically, the Achilles tendon will be loaded in this situation asymmetrically with high local stresses. Furthermore, a mechanical model with springs shows that (a) the amplitude of the displacement with the strong small springs is smaller and (b) that the loading in the joints of the springs is substantially smaller for the model with the strong small springs. Additionally, strong and active small muscles crossing the ankle joint provide stability for the ankle joint (base). If they are weak, forces in the ankle, knee and hip joint increase substantially due to multiple co-contractions at the joints. Finally, movement transfer between foot and tibia is high for movements induced from the bottom and small for movements induced from the top. Based on these considerations one should speculate that the bottom-up approach may be substantially more effective in preventing running injuries than the top down approach. Various possible strategies to strengthen the small muscles of the ankle joint are presented

Joseph Baker & Nick Wattie – new insights into the concept of innate talent in sport

In this target article, Joseph Baker and Nick Wattie revisited the review article on the evidence for innate talent published by Howe, Davidson and Sloboda 20 years ago, and focused mainly on whether this concept was reasonable and scientifically sound, and whether the concept of innate talent was valid also in the world of sport. The main article (CISS_3:006) is then discussed by five peer commentaries (CISS_4:102 – CISS_4:106), written by research experts in this field. Finally, Joseph Baker and Nick Wattie provided a closing response (CISS_4:108) acknowledging critiques, suggestions, and extensions brought forward by the commentators

Beyond nature vs. nurture in expertise research – comment on Baker & Wattie

The field of expertise is mired in a nature vs. nurture debate. Despite what we now know from behavioral genetics research about the underpinnings of human behavior, some expertise theorists continue to deny or downplay the importance of genetic factors (“innate talent”) in expert performance. In this commentary, we argue that this viewpoint is neither defensible nor productive. Our argument is based on two observations. First, there are always limits on human performance, even among individuals who have engaged in long periods of intensive training. Second, grounded in a neurobiological system that has evolved through natural selection, variation across people in phenotypes reflecting these limits will have a genetic component. We comment on directions for future research to advance the field of expertise

The acute time course of muscle and tendon tissue changes following one minute of static stretching

The purpose of this study was to investigate the time course of the changes of various muscle and tendon mechanical properties and the function responses of the plantar flexor muscles following 1 min of static stretching.Twenty-five healthy volunteers were assigned into a static stretching group or a control group. The static stretching group was tested with three different rest times (0 min,20 min,40 min) after 2x30s of stretching. Controls were tested before and after a control period (10 min) without stretching. Dorsiflexion range of motion (RoM), passive resistive torque (PRT), and maximum voluntary contraction (MVC) were measured with a dynamometer. Ultrasonography of the medial gastrocnemius (GM) muscle-tendon junction (MTJ) displacement allowed us to determine the length changes in the tendon and muscle, respectively, and hence to calculate their stiffness.Following the stretching, we observed a significant increase in RoM directly following the stretching, 20 min post-stretching, and 40 min post-stretching. However, no changes were found in other functional parameters (PRT, MVC) or structural parameters (muscle and tendon stiffness). No changes were detected in any variable in the control group.We conclude that a static stretching exercise of 2x30s increases the RoM for at least 40 min. However, this gain in RoM is not accompanied with more compliant muscle and/or tendon tissue, suggesting that 60s of static stretching might not be stimulus enough to induce changes in the muscle-tendon structure. Hence, we speculate that other factors, such as increased stretch tolerance, might be responsible for the changes in the RoM observed in the present study

Quiet Eye research – Joan Vickers on target

In this target article (TA; CISS2016_100), Joan Vickers gives an overview of 20 years of research on her discovery that a relatively long lasting fixation before movement initiation enhances complex-motor performance, the so-called Quiet Eye (QE) phenomenon. Vickers’ main article (CISS2016_101) is the focus of sixteen peer commentaries (CISS2016_102 – CISS2016_117), authored by sport scientists with a special focus on the QE (Causer; Farrow & Panchuk; Klostermann, Vater & Kredel; Mann, Wright & Janelle; Schorer, Tirp & Rienhoff; Williams; Wilson, Wood & Vine), by sport scientists with different research foci (Baker & Wattie; Davids & Araujo; Frank & Schack; Helsen, Levin, Ziv & Davare; Rodrigues & Navarro), and by experts in human perception from disciplines beyond sport science (Foulsham; Gegenfurtner & Szulewski; Spering & Schütz; Watson & Enns). Finally, critiques, suggestions, and extensions brought forward by the commentators are acknowledged by Vickers in her closing response (CISS2016_118)

Origins and current issues in Quiet Eye research

All sports require precise control of physical actions and vision is essential in providing the information the movement systems needs to perform at a high level. Vision and focus of attention play a critically important role as the ability to direct the gaze to optimal areas in the playing environment, at the appropriate time, is central to success in all sports. One variable that has been consistently found to discriminate elite performers from their near-elite and novice counterparts is the Quiet Eye (QE). In the present paper, I first define the QE, followed by an explanation of its origins as well as the question: why have I pursued this one variable for over 35 years? I then provide a brief overview of QE research, and concentrate on QE training, which has emerged as an effective method for improving both attentional focus and motor performance. In the final section, I discuss some future directions, in particular those related to identifying the neural networks underlying the QE during successful trials

Influence of exclusive resistance training on body composition and cardiovascular risk factors in overweight and obese children and adolescents: A systematic review update

Purpose: The aim of the present systematic review was to update a previous review, aiming at investigating the effects of exclusive resistance training on body composition and cardiovascular risk factors for obese or overweight children and adolescents and to report the efficiency of whole-body strength training in weight management and obesity prevention during adolescence. Method: Intervention studies that performed isolated resistance training with overweight or obese children and adolescents under 18 years of age were systematically reviewed. Body composition and cardiovascular risk factors constituted as the outcome measurements. Results: Five studies passed the inclusion criteria. All participants in treatment groups undertook supervised whole-body resistance training. The mean compliance was 87%. Four studies reported significant changes in body composition, with a decrease in mass, percentage body fat, waist circumference and waist-to-hip ratio as well as a significant increase in fat free mass. Three studies analysed the effects on cardiovascular risk factors and two reported significant changes with a decrease in systolic blood pressure and IL-6 as well as a significant increase in adiponectin. Conclusion: A strength training intervention appears safe and tends to show positive effects for obese adolescents. Several significant changes were observed. A lack of studies and a small sample size of participants conducting an isolated strength training intervention made a safe interpretation difficult. Due to this, more studies are needed to analyse the role of exclusive resistance training in weight management for obese adolescents and its influence on cardiovascular risk factors