16 research outputs found

    The horses’ expression of emotions during interaction with humans : body language and facial expression

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    Many people are interacting with horses in different ways and for different reasons, as a hobby or professionally. Domestic horses are dependent on humans to understand and meet their needs, interpret their expression of emotions to recognize signs of negative emotions, and perhaps equally important, to recognize signs of positive emotions. It is widely accepted in research that animal welfare is more than just the absence of negative emotions, it is also about the presence of positive emotions. This puts a lot of pressure on humans to make sure the horses they take care of have a positive welfare. A review was made on what is currently known about how horses’ express emotions through body language and facial expressions. This was supplemented by a survey asking people actively involved with horses which emotions they think horses can experience, which emotions they have seen horses express, and how much attention they pay to a horse’s expression of emotions when interacting with them. Horses can most likely experience every emotion and mood that humans can. The respondents of the survey did not quite agree with the literature review on which emotions horses can experience. Animals’ emotions and moods are important parts of their welfare, and this is why humans interacting with horses should have knowledge about which emotions they can experience and how they are expressed. To promote positive emotions in horses, humans need knowledge on what brings them out and how to recognize them. To recognize how certain emotions are expressed could also contribute to safer human-horse interactions. Keywords: horse, emotion, mood, facial expression, body language, welfare, interaction, huma

    Vad kan djurs empatiska förmÄga innebÀra för vÄrt omsorgsetiska ansvar?

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    Syftet med denna litteraturstudie Ă€r att undersöka om djur kan kĂ€nna empati och att utforska vad det kan innebĂ€ra för djurs förmĂ„ga att kĂ€nna lidande. I omsorgsetikens anda diskuteras sedan vilken betydelse detta skulle kunna ha för vĂ„rt moraliska ansvar gentemot djuren, inom alla sfĂ€rer av djuranvĂ€ndande. Huvudtanken inom omsorgsetiken Ă€r att individer till olika grad Ă€r beroende och oberoende av varandra, dĂ€r den som stĂ„r i en maktposition över nĂ„gon annan ska vĂ€rna om och frĂ€mja den andres egenintressen och syften nĂ€r denne sjĂ€lv inte kan det i tillrĂ€cklig utstrĂ€ckning. Vi har en maktposition över djuren liknande den maktposition vi vuxna har gentemot vĂ„ra barn, dĂ„ djur liksom barn tycks vara kĂ€nnande individer utan makten att pĂ„verka sin egen vĂ€lfĂ€rd fullt ut. HĂ€r vĂ€cks dĂ€rför Ă€ven diskussionen om hur vĂ„rt moraliska ansvar för vĂ„ra barn kan vĂ€gleda oss nĂ€r det gĂ€ller vilket moraliskt ansvar vi bör ta för vĂ„ra djur. En rad studier visar tydliga tecken pĂ„ empatisk förmĂ„ga hos sĂ„vĂ€l barn som hos elefanter, schimpanser, hundar och rĂ„ttor. Exempelvis har signifikanta likheter i empatisk förmĂ„ga mellan barn och schimpanser pĂ„visats, dĂ€r schimpanserna hjĂ€lpte varandra altruistiskt pĂ„ liknande sĂ€tt som barnen hjĂ€lpte varandra. Detta tyder pĂ„ att empatisk förmĂ„ga inte uppstĂ„tt först hos mĂ€nniskor utan kan gĂ„ tillbaka sĂ„ lĂ„ngt som till den senaste gemensamma förfadern till mĂ€nniskor och schimpanser. KĂ€nslan empati har enligt forskare haft en stor evolutionĂ€r roll, dĂ„ empati öppnar möjligheten för en grupp att snabbt agera utifrĂ„n varandras kĂ€nslor. Detta har stor betydelse i sĂ„vĂ€l sociala interaktioner som för hela gruppens överlevnad och syften. UtifrĂ„n de olika nivĂ„erna av empati, kan vi dra slutsatsen att en individ med empatisk förmĂ„ga per automatik har lidandeförmĂ„ga. Dessutom ökar förmĂ„gan att kĂ€nna empati antalet sĂ€tt att kĂ€nna lidande pĂ„. Det Ă€r allmĂ€n norm att vuxnas egna intressen inte ska gĂ„ före vĂ„ra barns upplevelser av lidande. En bedömning utifrĂ„n barnets behov vĂ€gs stĂ€ndigt mot det sunda förnuftet för att skapa en relation och vardag som fungerar, dĂ€r den vuxna alltid har makten. Ett omsorgstĂ€nk prĂ€glar varje dag i en förĂ€lders liv. DĂ„ Ă€ven djur med stor sannolikhet kan uppleva lidande och andra kĂ€nslor, och dĂ„ vi stĂ„r i en maktposition Ă€ven gentemot dem, bör omsorg prĂ€gla relation och vardag Ă€ven mellan mĂ€nniska och sĂ„vĂ€l tama som vilda djur i de fall vi interagerar med varandra. Kanske kan vi aldrig ta ett fullt omsorgsetiskt ansvar med innebörden att vi alltid agerar pĂ„ ett sĂ„dant sĂ€tt att vĂ„ra handlingar aldrig hotar nĂ„got djurs vĂ€lfĂ€rd eller intresse, dĂ„ vĂ„r art trots allt konkurrerar med andra arter om bĂ„de yta och tillgĂ„ngar pĂ„ vĂ„r planet. Men med en omsorgsetisk grund skulle vi kunna vĂ€rna om andra arter mycket mer Ă€n vi gör idag, liknande det sĂ€tt vi vĂ€rnar om vĂ„ra barn. Inte trots att vi har maktpositionen, utan tack vare att vi har den.The aim of this study is to investigate the empathic ability of animals and explore what it could mean to their capacity of suffering. With the care ethics in mind, this study will also discuss how the empathic ability of animals can affect our moral responsibility, in all areas of animal use. The main idea of care ethics is that individuals, to different extents, are dependent and independent of each other. This means that someone in the position of power over another should care for and promote the interests and aims of that person when he or she are unable to do so. We have a position of power over the animals similar to the one we have over our children. Therefore, this study will also discuss how our moral responsibility for our children can guide us when it comes to our moral responsibility for animals. A number of studies show significant signs of empathic ability within children as well as elephants, chimpanzees, dogs and rats. For example, similar capacity of empathy has been found in children and chimpanzees, where the chimpanzees helped each other in a comparable altruistic way as the children helped each other. This implies that empathic ability did not arise first in humans but can go back as far as the latest common ancestor of humans and chimpanzees. The feeling of empathy has had a great evolutionary role, since empathy opens the possibility for a group to act quickly based on each other’s feelings. This is of great importance in social interactions as well as for the survival and purpose of the whole group. Based on the different levels on empathy, we can conclude that an individual with empathic ability automatically has the capacity to suffer. In addition, the ability to feel empathy increases the number of ways to feel suffering. It is the general norm that adult’s own interests should not precede our children’s experiences of suffering. An assessment based on the child’s needs is constantly weighed against the common sense to create a relationship and everyday life that work, where the adult always has the power. The act of caring plays an important role in the daily life of a parent. Since even animals most likely can experience suffering and other emotions, and since we are in a position of power even towards them, care should characterize the relationship and everyday life also between man and both domestic and wild animals in cases where we interact with each other. Perhaps it is not possible for us to take full-care ethic responsibility, meaning that one’s actions never threaten another’s welfare or interests, since our species is in constant competition with other species for both space and resources. But with the care ethics in mind, we could care for other species much more than we do today, similar to the way we care for our children. Not despite our position of power, but thanks to it

    NĂ€r religion och djurskydd kolliderar

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    The fact that animals have feelings is something that is commonly agreed. Many authors show how animals' views of their environment is quite similar with human views. Animals, which are slaughtered without prior stunning, find the moment of slaughter unpleasant and stressing. This is shown in numerous of scientific studies. The cognitive ability of animals can be compared to how they experience feelings and scientists have shown how the structures in the brain that involves feelings and cognitive behaviours in animals are very much the same as the structures in human brains. Because of this, some scientists consider that behaviour in animals can be directly interpreted into human feelings. Halal- and kosher slaughter comes from traditions. These traditions come from interpretations of religious texts. The texts were written in a time when there was little knowledge of animal welfare and food hygiene. What the texts are saying is that animals should be treated with respect and that they should not suffer. Some animals are, according to the texts, not clean and should therefore not be consumed. This also applies for some parts of the animals' body. If an animal somehow is injured, the meat can not be eaten according to the religious texts. This causes trouble, when in modern times; animals are stunned prior to slaughter. For some religious groups, stunning is concerned to be an injury and the meat can therefore not be consumed. In Sweden it is not allowed to slaughter animals without prior stunning. The European laws say the same, but there is a possibility to slaughter animals without prior stunning for religious purposes. According to sources in the EU more and more animals are slaughtered without prior stunning. This is because it is easier to have one way to produce instead of two. The meat that is not sold to the religious groups is in some cases sold as "regular" meat. I have not been able to get answers to the questions if the Swedish food chains sell meat of this kind or not. But I have hopefully awoken an interest in the question and I am hoping, thorough this, that they make considerable research in where the meat comes from and how the animals are treated at slaughter

    Mulesingens historia och framtid, samt dess konsekvenser för djurvÀlfÀrden.

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    Mulesing is a surgical husbandry procedure performed on lambs in Australia. The reason is to prevent severe fly-strike to the breech area, which otherwise risks to be soiled with faeces. This problem is mainly occurring in sheep of the Merino breed. Their fine wool is in demand worldwide due to high quality. Mulesing has been performed since the 1930’s, and even though alternative methods have been discussed nothing is yet generally accepted. Mulesing will be phased out by 2010, and alternatives presented by Australian Wool Innovation Limited (Australian wool producers) are non-surgical mulesing, such as plastic clips that are attached to the skin wrinkles to stop the blood flow and cause necrosis. Another alternative is to inject chemicals in the skin of the lamb, the chemicals causes the skin proteins to denaturise and the breech wrinkle falls off. None of these alternatives has proven to be less painful than mulesing, and are not accepted by Animals Australia, Australia’s national animal protection organisation. The only sustainable alternative is to genetically develop sheep that are resistant to fly-strike. Through breeding programs it is possible to get sheep with smooth wool-free breeches, where the results are as good as, or even better than with the Mules operation. In Sweden retailers and consumers have reacted to the cruel treatment of the lambs, after a TVprogramme broadcasted in 2008. Many retailers have since made changes in their routines, and are now claiming guarantees from their suppliers. It is still hard to trace mulesing-free wool from Australia today. As a conscious consumer one has responsibility to get information about how products are made, and it is hard to do, since production chains are not completely transparent. Animal welfare is often in clash with economic interests, and in the case of mulesing, there is also a conflict between the suffering of the procedure itself and the suffering of fly-strike. Breeding programs will take time, and there is a need for more research

    Avliva eller lÄta leva?

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    Denna studie har tre syften. Det första Ă€r att undersöka hur djurĂ€gare och veterinĂ€rer ser pĂ„ lidande, livskvalitĂ© och beslut om avlivning av sĂ€llskapsdjur. Med hjĂ€lp av intervjuresultat samt med stöd av olika normativa etiska teorier Ă€r mĂ„let att sedan diskutera olika svar pĂ„ frĂ„gan ”nĂ€r Ă€r det dags att avliva?” i situationer dĂ„ ett djurs lidande och livskvalitĂ© vĂ€gs mot intressen av att lĂ„ta djuret leva eller dö. Det andra syftet Ă€r att undersöka om synen pĂ„ lidande, livskvalitĂ© och avlivning skiljer sig mellan veterinĂ€rer och djurĂ€gare nĂ€r det gĂ€ller olika sĂ€llskapsdjur (hund och katt samt mindre sĂ€llskapsdjur som marsvin och hamster). Det tredje syftet Ă€r att undersöka om kommunikationen mellan veterinĂ€rer och djurĂ€gare kan underlĂ€ttas för att veterinĂ€ren ska kunna hjĂ€lpa djurĂ€garen att fatta ett beslut om att behĂ„lla eller avliva djuret. Det finns olika uppfattningar om vad som Ă€r kriteriet pĂ„ en etiskt riktig handling och dĂ€rmed om vad som Ă€r relevant att beakta och efterstrĂ€vansvĂ€rt. DjurrĂ€ttighetsetiken Ă€r en variant av pliktetiken som fokuserar pĂ„ intentionen bakom en handling och den goda viljan hos den som handlar. Grundprincipen Ă€r att varje etiskt beslut ska utgĂ„ frĂ„n respekt för varje enskild individ och följa de plikter man har gentemot dem och sig sjĂ€lv. Ur ett djurrĂ€ttsetiskt perspektiv Ă€r det ofta fel att avliva ett djur, dĂ„ det finns en skyldighet att respektera varje individs rĂ€tt till sitt liv. Enligt nyttoetiken Ă€r den rĂ€tta handlingen den som ger störst nytta totalt sett. Om vi antar att det ligger i ett djurs intresse att dö för att undslippa ett stort lidande utan rimliga chanser till förbĂ€ttring, sĂ„ skulle djuret mĂ„ dĂ„ligt av att fortsĂ€tta leva. DĂ€remot sĂ„ skulle kanske djurĂ€garen mĂ„ dĂ„ligt av att inte lĂ€ngre ha djuret hos sig. Genom att jĂ€mföra mĂ€ngden negativa och positiva upplevelser hos de berörda individerna kan man avgöra vilken handling som ger mest positiva upplevelser och dĂ€rmed Ă€r det mest etiskt riktiga beslutet. Enligt dygdetiken Ă€r det personen bakom beslutet om avlivning som Ă€r viktig, att beslutet följer vad en dygdig mĂ€nniska skulle göra i situationen. Detta kan man se pĂ„ tvĂ„ sĂ€tt, baserat i tvĂ„ olika dygder; antingen Ă€r det rĂ€tt att avliva ett djur som inte mĂ„r bra för att det Ă€r barmhĂ€rtigt att hjĂ€lpa djuret att slippa lidandet. Men Ă„ andra sidan kan det ocksĂ„ vara respektfullt att vĂ€rna om djurets liv, om man nu antar att djuret har ett eget intresse av att leva och dĂ€rmed antas vara beredd att gĂ„ igenom mycket lidande för att fĂ„ fortsĂ€tta att leva. Hur en dygdetiker i detta lĂ€ge vĂ€ljer att resonera beror pĂ„ hur hen vĂ€ljer att tolka de dygder som finns samt hur etikern ser pĂ„ djurets intressen och liv. Enligt omsorgsetiken har vi mĂ€nniskor pĂ„ grund av vĂ„r maktposition i relation till djuret ett ansvar att vĂ€rna om djurets intressen och kĂ€nslor och dĂ€rmed mĂ„ste en omsorgsetiker fundera över vilka dessa intressen och kĂ€nslor Ă€r. Djuret ska enligt omsorgsetiken vĂ€rnas i sin sĂ„rbarhet och inte utsĂ€ttas för lidande, Ă€ven om det skulle vara bekvĂ€mare för mĂ€nniskan, och heller inte avlivas enbart för att det av andra skĂ€l, t.ex. ekonomiska, vore att föredra för djurĂ€garen eller veterinĂ€ren. Lidande kan sammanfattas som fysiskt och psykiskt obehag, kombinerat eller var för sig, tillrĂ€ckligt stort för att individen ska vilja undslippa det. Lidandet kan vara av olika grader frĂ„n lindrigt till svĂ„rt lidande. De flesta intervjuade djurĂ€gare och veterinĂ€rer anser dock att lidande Ă€r nĂ„got större Ă€n ”bara” fysisk och psykisk smĂ€rta och nĂ„got som uppstĂ„r först dĂ„ djuret inte lĂ€ngre har nĂ„gon livskvalitĂ© kvar. God livskvalitĂ© kan sammanfattas som en subjektiv mental upplevelse dĂ€r en god fysisk och psykisk hĂ€lsa utgör grunden och som tillsammans med överhĂ€ngande positiva upplevelser skapar kĂ€nslor av vĂ€lbehag och ger ett liv som Ă€r tillfredsstĂ€llande att leva. MĂ„nga intervjuade, bĂ„de veterinĂ€rer och djurĂ€gare, menade dock att en god livskvalitĂ© Ă€r nĂ€r djuret Ă€r smĂ€rtfritt och fĂ„r sina basala behov uppfyllda, det vill sĂ€ga avsaknad av lidande Ă€r enligt dem ofta detsamma som god livskvalitĂ©. TvĂ„ av de fem intervjuade veterinĂ€rerna menade dock att det utöver uppfyllda basalbehov Ă€ven krĂ€vs positiva upplevelser för att ett djur ska ha god livskvalitĂ©. Studier visar att mĂ€ngden lidande och dĂ„lig livskvalitĂ© Ă€r de faktorer som vĂ€ger tyngst nĂ€r djurĂ€gare fattar beslut om avlivning, vilket Ă€ven avspeglas i intervjuerna. Samtidigt tyder vĂ€lfĂ€rdsstudier pĂ„ att det som egentligen avgör ett djurs livskvalitĂ© Ă€r de positiva upplevelserna i djurets liv, snarare Ă€n de negativa. Livet kan alltsĂ„ vara vĂ€rt att leva trots en viss mĂ€ngd lidande eller en period av dĂ„lig livskvalitĂ©, om livet i övrigt bestĂ„r av överhĂ€ngande positiva upplevelser. Om vi inte blir medvetna om att vi behöver titta pĂ„ de positiva aspekterna i ett djurs liv för att kunna bedöma livskvalitĂ© och djurvĂ€lfĂ€rd, kommer vi att nöja oss med mycket mindre Ă€n att djuret verkligen ska ha ett tillfredsstĂ€llande liv (utifrĂ„n djurets perspektiv). Om vi bedömer livskvalitĂ©n pĂ„ felaktiga grunder kommer vi ocksĂ„ att tro att djur i större utstrĂ€ckning har tillfredsstĂ€llande liv Ă€n vad de egentligen har, vilket bara kan leda till onödigt lidande hos alla djur vi hĂ„ller, sĂ„vĂ€l sĂ€llskapsdjur som produktionsdjur. Sammantaget tycks de intervjuade djurĂ€garna och veterinĂ€rerna blanda ihop begreppen lidande och livskvalitĂ©. De skapar en enda lĂ„ng skala frĂ„n inget lidande och god livskvalitĂ© till mycket lidande och dĂ„lig livskvalitĂ© vilken de sedan utgĂ„r frĂ„n nĂ€r de ska bedöma om djuret ska avlivas eller inte. Det tycks falla bort att god livskvalitĂ© innebĂ€r att djuret har nĂ„got extra glĂ€djeĂ€mne i livet, vilket spelar en stor roll för hur djurets intresse av att leva ser ut. Det optimala vore istĂ€llet att bedöma lidande för sig och livskvalitĂ© för sig och dĂ€refter relatera detta till olika etiska vĂ€rden för att nĂ„ ett vĂ€lgrundat beslut om avlivning. NĂ€r det gĂ€ller synen pĂ„ olika sĂ€llskapsdjur verkar den allmĂ€nna uppfattningen bland informanterna vara att mindre sĂ€llskapsdjur som marsvin och hamster inte förmĂ„r uppleva lika mycket kĂ€nslor som större djur och dĂ€rför behöver miljön inte berikas lika mycket för att ge dessa djur en god livskvalitĂ©. NĂ€r det gĂ€ller avlivning av dessa djur sĂ„ verkade det generellt som att dessa beslut fattas snabbare Ă€n för större djur. Det sista avsnittet handlar om kommunikation mellan veterinĂ€r och djurĂ€gare. Tre av fem djurĂ€gare ville enligt intervjuerna möta en rak, saklig och Ă€rlig veterinĂ€r som inte lindar in sina rĂ„d och Ă„sikter. De flesta veterinĂ€rer ansĂ„g att de behöver ta hĂ€nsyn till djurĂ€garens personlighet och gĂ„ försiktigt fram för att inte trampa djurĂ€garen pĂ„ tĂ„rna. Denna studies resultat tyder pĂ„ att kommunikationen mellan veterinĂ€r och djurĂ€gare skulle kunna förbĂ€ttras, framför allt genom att veterinĂ€ren skulle kunna jobba för att djurĂ€garen förstĂ„r begreppen lidande och livskvalitĂ© bĂ€ttre. Att fatta beslut om avlivning Ă€r inte lĂ€tt, det Ă€r bĂ„de de intervjuade personerna i studien samt tidigare studier överens om, och beroende pĂ„ vilken etisk teorisom följs landar man i olika slutsatser. I slutĂ€nden mĂ„ste varje djurĂ€gare och veterinĂ€r, oavsett vilken etisk teori personen utgĂ„r ifrĂ„n, göra ett Ă€rligt försök att sĂ€tta sig in i djurets situation och upplevelse av livskvalitĂ©, lidande och intressen och inkludera detta i ett vĂ€lunderbyggt etiskt beslut. Intervjuerna visar Ă€ven vikten av att vi mĂ€nniskor, sĂ„vĂ€l djurĂ€gare som veterinĂ€rer, ser till att stötta varandra och vara ödmjuka mot varandra i vetskapen om att inget solklart Ă€r rĂ€tt eller fel i ett beslut om avlivning samt att situationen vĂ€cker kĂ€nslor hos alla inblandade. Nyckelord: lidande, livskvalitĂ©, avlivning, etik, veterinĂ€r, djurĂ€gareThis study has three purposes. The first one is to explore various ethical aspects of euthanasia of companion animals using literature and interviews with pet owners and veterinarians. The idea is to explore various answers to the question ”when is the right time to euthanize?” in situations when the suffering and quality of life of an animal is weighed against the interests of letting the animal live or die, using various ethical models. The second purpose is to estimate whether the view on suffering is different among veterinarians and pet owners when it comes to different companion animals (dogs and cats and smaller animals such as guinea pigs and hamsters). The third and last purpose is to explore whether the view on euthanasia differs between veterinarians and pet owners, and if communication between these parties need to improve in order for the veterinarian to better help the pet owner make a decision about euthanasia. There are different opinions on what constitutes an ethically correct action and thus what is relevant and desired. Animal rights ethics is a variation of deontological ethics which focuses on the intention behind an action and the good will of the actor. The basic principal is that every ethical decision should build on respect for each individual, applying relevant duties to reflect that. From the perspective of animal rights ethics, euthanizing an animal is often wrong as there is an obligation to respect the right of life of every individual. According to utilitarianism, the right action is that which provides the greatest overall benefit. If we assume that it is in the best interest of an animals to die when faced with severe suffering without reasonable chance of improvement, the animal would most likely suffer from continued life. However, the pet owner might suffer from no longer having the animal with them. By comparing the amount of negative and positive experiences of the individuals involved we can decide which action will give the most positive experiences and which is therefore the most ethically correct decision. According to virtue ethics the person behind the decision to euthanize is what matters, and that the decision follows what a virtuous human being would do in that situation. There are two ways to look upon this, related to two different virtues; it is either right to euthanize a suffering animal because it is honorable to free the animal from its suffering, or it is respectful to protect the animal’s life if we assume the animal has an own interest in living and is therefore prepared to go through a lot of suffering to continue living. How a virtue ethicist would argue would depend entirely on how he or she would interpret the virtues at hand and how the ethicist views the interests and life of the animal. According to care ethics, because of our position of power as humans over the animal, we have a responsibility to protect the interests and feelings of the animal. Therefore, a care ethicist must consider what those interests and feelings are. A care ethicist must at all times consider what the animal probably wants and what makes the animal feel good, and act accordingly in every single case. According to care ethics the animal must neither be subjected to suffering but respected in its vulnerability, nor euthanized even if that would be easier or otherwise preferable to the pet owner or the veterinarian. Suffering can be defined as physical and mental discomfort, either combined or independently, where suffering varies from mild to severe. This is also the definition used for the discussion part of this thesis. However, most interviewed state that suffering is not just physical and mental pain, but results from the animal no longer having a reasonable level of quality of life. A good quality of life can be defined as: a subjective mental experience based on good physical and mental health which combined with overall positive experiences create feelings of well-being and a satisfying life. Many of those interviewed, veterinarians as well as pet owners, stated that a good quality of life comes from the animal being free from pain and having its basic needs met and that a lack of suffering equals a good quality of life. However, most of the veterinarians interviewed stated that beyond basic needs, positive experiences are also required for an animal to have a good quality of life. Studies show that the amount of suffering and poor quality of life are the factors which most heavily weigh in on a pet owner’s decision to euthanize, something also seen in the interviews. At the same time other studies suggest that what really decides the quality of life of an animal’s is the positive experiences in its life rather than the negative. Thus, life can be worth living despite some suffering or a period of poor quality of life, if life is otherwise filled with positive experiences. Unless we become aware that we need to look at the positive aspects of the life of an animal to evaluate its quality of life and animal welfare, we will be content with less than the animal having a satisfying life from the perspective of the animal. If we evaluate the quality of life incorrectly, we will also believe the animals to have a more satisfying life than they actually do, which can only lead to pointless suffering of domestic animals, both pets and production animals. It seems that veterinarians and pet owners in this study confuse the terms suffering and quality of life. They create a long continuum from no suffering and good quality of life to severe suffering and bad quality of life, which they then use to evaluate whether to euthanize the animal. It seems they do not consider a joyful life beyond basic needs as a requirement for a good quality of life. A joyful life beyond basic needs is important to make life worth living for the animal. A better way would be to judge quality of life and suffering separately and then evaluate that against different ethical values to reach an informed decision about euthanasia. When it comes to the view on different companion animals, the consensus by those interviewed appears to be that smaller animals such as guinea pigs and hamsters are not able to feel as many emotions as bigger animals like dogs and cats. Therefore, they believe that the living environment of the smaller animals does not need to be as stimulating as that of the bigger animals in order to achieve a good quality of life. When it comes to euthanasia of smaller animals it seems that the decision is easier made than for the bigger animals. The last section is about communication between veterinarians and pet owners. According to the interviews most (three out of five) pet owners wanted to interact with a straight-forward and honest veterinarian who does not sugar coat their advice and opinion. Most veterinarians felt they had to consider the personality of the pet owners and tread carefully not to step on the pet owner’s toes. When it comes to the decision to euthanize most veterinarians agreed that the feelings of the pet owners are important and that the communication should be modified accordingly and that they themselves, besides being empathetic and supportive, should be there to provide knowledge. The results from this study leads to the suggestion that communication between veterinarians and pet owners could improve, primarily by veterinarians focus on helping the pet owners understand the concepts of suffering and quality of life. Following different ethical theories leads to different conclusions. At the end, every pet owner and veterinarian, no matter what ethical model is applied, have to make an honest attempt to understand the animal’s situation and experience of quality of life, suffering and interests, to be included in an ethical informed decision. The interviews also highlight how important it is that we humans, pet owners and veterinarians alike, humbly support each other well knowing that there are no moral absolutes when it comes to euthanization and that this is an emotional situation for all involved. Keywords: suffering, quality of life, euthanize, ethics, veterinarian, pet owne

    Effects of transportation and noise on activity and aggressive interactions during lairage in pigs

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    During pre-slaughter handling of pigs the animals are often subjected to methods that induces stress and are a threat to the wellbeing of the animals, such as mixing of groups, loud noise and transportation. A new law will be implemented in 2006 in Sweden that prohibits mechanical noise exceeding 65 dB in abattoirs. The purpose of the research presented in this paper was to examine the effects of noise and transportation on pig behaviour. The activity and aggressiveness of the pigs were examined with behavioural studies during transportation and during three different noise levels: 55, 75 and 95 dB. Before the noise treatments took place the groups were mixed and half of them were transported for approximately 2 hours. In the study 432 pigs were used. Everyday 24 pigs were used, and divided into two groups, with 12 in each. Therefore two different pens were used, both during transportation and lairage. During transportation the pens were of different sizes giving different densities. In the lairage there were also differences in the pens, one of the boxes consisting of three walls and one gate (pen 1) and the other of two walls and two gates (pen 2). Three different behavioural observations took place; one during transport and two during waiting in the lairage. The animals were videotaped so that the aggressive encounters could be examined in detail. Focus was made on the characters of the attacks and the interactions but also the number of individuals participating in aggressive encounters and in which way. During transportation the pigs were active 91,3% of the time. The pigs sat down significantly more in the smaller pen with higher density. The transportation also affected the behaviour of the pigs during lairage. Pigs that had been subjected to transportation laid less often on their side and more often on their stomach than pigs not subjected to transportation. They also fought less and spent more time in oral contact with other pigs. The characters of the encounters were also affected; the frequency of passive interactions and harassment became lower after transportation. In respond to this a theory can be formed that the transportation is energy demanding for the pigs and leads to exhaustion. Transportation did not lower the level of aggression since the attack forms and the characters of the encounters were not affected. The different placing of the two pens in the lairage led to the pig standing up and walking significantly more in pen 2 regardless the treatment. Pigs subjected to transportation also stood and walked more in pen 2 than in pen 1. Transported pigs laid more often on the stomach in pen 1 than in pen 2. Therefore a conclusion is made that pen 1 gives the pigs a more safe and stable environment. During the research 80% of the pigs participated in aggressive interactions and 54, 2% were active aggressive by attacking others. The results show a change in the attack form when subjected to loud noise. Attacks in head to head position and parallel position were less common during treatments with 95 dB. The total number of attacks was not affected. The characteristics of the interactions also changed in treatments with 95 dB. Passive aggression and harassment occurred less often, but the total amount of aggressive interactions was not affected. A theory is based upon these results that loud noise decreases the possibilities for the pigs to communicate. Both noise and transportation can be a threat to the wellbeing of the pigs. As a conclusion more studies has to be done in detail on the behaviour of pigs when subjected to noise and transportation, to elucidate the exact effects.I Sverige kommer Ă„r 2006 en ny lag som innebĂ€r att mekaniskt buller pĂ„ landets slakterier mĂ„ste sĂ€nkas till nivĂ„er under 65 dB. Huvudsyftet med detta försök Ă€r att utreda hur buller och transport pĂ„verkar grisars beteende under vĂ€ntan inför slakt. Grisarna utsattes Ă€ven för tvĂ„ andra vanligt förekommande stressmoment inom slakthantering idag; blandning och transport. I studien studerades grisarnas aggressivitet och aktivitet under transport och i vĂ€ntstallet pĂ„ slakteriet under tre bullernivĂ„er: 55, 75 och 95 dB. Före behandling med buller blandades grisarna och hĂ€lften av grupperna transporterades i ca 2 timmar. I försöken ingick 432 grisar. Under en försöksdag anvĂ€ndes 24 grisar, indelade i tvĂ„ grupper om 12 individer. TvĂ„ boxar utnyttjades i transportbilen och i vĂ€nthallen. I transportbilen var boxarna olika stora, vilket ledde till skillnader i densiteten under transport. Även pĂ„ slakteriet fanns skillnader i boxutformning; box 1 hade en fast vĂ€gg och en öppningsbar grind i kortsidorna och box 2 hade tvĂ„ öppningsbara grindar. Tre olika beteendestudier utfördes: en direktobservation under tranport och en i vĂ€nthallen, samt en videoobservation i vĂ€nthallen. Syftet med direktobservationerna var att kunna uppskatta aktiviteten medan videoobservationerna gav möjlighet att göra en mer djupgĂ„ende studie pĂ„ grisarnas aggressiva interaktioner. Attackformerna, interaktionernas karaktĂ€rer och hur mĂ„nga av grisarna som deltog i slagsmĂ„l och pĂ„ vilket sĂ€tt studerades. Under transporten var grisarna aktiva 91,3% av tiden. Densiteten under transporten gav effekt pĂ„ sittfrekvensen, grisarna satt mer nĂ€r densiteten var hög. Transporten gav signifikanta förĂ€ndringar i grisarnas beteende i vĂ€nstallet. Transporterade grisar lĂ„g oftare pĂ„ mage och mer sĂ€llan pĂ„ sidan, Ă€n grisar som inte transporterats. Grisarna slogs ocksĂ„ mindre frekvent och Ă€gnade mer tid Ă„t oralkontakt med andra grisar (manipulering). Transporten förĂ€ndrade karaktĂ€ren pĂ„ interaktionerna, trakassering och passiv aggressivitet sjönk signifikant. Dessa resultat kan ligga till grund för att skapa en teori att transport Ă€r energikrĂ€vande för grisarna och leder till utmattning. Transporten hade inte en aggressionsdĂ€mpande effekt eftersom antalet attacker inte sjönk samt att karaktĂ€rerna pĂ„ attackerna inte förĂ€ndrades. De olika placeringarna av boxarna i vĂ€ntstallet ledde till att grisarna i box 2 stod och gick signifikant mer oberoende av behandling. Även transporterade grisar stod och gick signifikant mer i box 2 Ă€n i box 1. Transporterade grisar lĂ„g pĂ„ mage signifikant mer i box 1 Ă€n, men stod och gick signifikant mer i box 2. Slutsatsen i detta avseende blir sĂ„ledes att box 1 ger grisarna en lugnare och mer stabil nĂ€rmiljö. Under studierna deltog igenomsnitt 80% av individerna i interaktionerna, 54,2% var aktivt aggressiva genom att attackera andra individer. BullernivĂ„n hade effekter pĂ„ de aggressiva interaktionerna. Attackformen förĂ€ndras sĂ„tillvida att vid 95 dB minskade antalet attacker framifrĂ„n och parallellt i jĂ€mförelse med behandling med 55 dB. Det totala antalet attacker pĂ„verkades ej. Bullret hade Ă€ven effekt pĂ„ interaktionernas karaktĂ€rer, vid 95 dB sjönk frekvensen trakassering och passiv aggressivitet signifikant. Den totala frekvensen aggressiva interaktioner pĂ„verkades ej. Dessa resultat kan ligga till grund för en teori att höga ljudnivĂ„er förminskar djurens möjligheter att kommunicera och dĂ€rmed pĂ„verkas deras sociala interaktioner. BĂ„de mekaniskt buller och transport har en negativ inverkan pĂ„ grisarnas mĂ„ende. Fler studier behövs för att utreda i detalj vilka effekter höga ljudnivĂ„er och transport har pĂ„ grisarnas beteende

    Emotional states - how can we measure what the pig is feeling?

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    I och med dagens intensiva produktion och vÀxande djurbesÀttningar Àr det av stor vikt att studera och förstÄ djurens kÀnslotillstÄnd. Att undersöka kÀnslor Àr komplext och det har visat sig vara problematiskt att tolka resultaten. Hos grisar har mÄnga olika beteendestudier gjorts för att undersöka emotionella tillstÄnd. En mÀngd olika faktorer har anvÀnts och den hÀr litteraturstudien kommer att undersöka straff och belöning, rÀdsla samt tvÄ generella beteenden som reflekterar ett positivt och ett negativt kÀnslotillstÄnd. Grisars beteende som svar pÄ olika stimuli har anvÀnts som en mall och positiva kÀnslotillstÄnd förknippas med en ökad sannolikhet att uppfatta situationer och hÀndelser positivt. Oavsett metod framgÄr det tydligt att det Àr problematiskt att mÀta kÀnslotillstÄnd hos grisar. Det Àr viktigt att fortsÀtta att utveckla studier för att förbÀttra förstÄelsen kring resultaten. Avsaknaden av mÀtningar kring positiva kÀnslor gör dock att metoderna som tas upp ofta fokuserar pÄ negativa kÀnslotillstÄnd sÄsom Ängest, rÀdsla och stress. Mer forskning om hur positiva kÀnslor kan studeras Àr nödvÀndigt för att sÀkerstÀlla vÀlfÀrden hos grisar samt för att upprÀtthÄlla en sund, framgÄngsrik och hÄllbar djurhÄllning.With today's intense livestock production and growing herd size, it is of great importance to study and understand animals' emotional state. Studying emotions is a complex task and it has proven to be problematic to interpret the results. Many different behavioral studies have been conducted to investigate emotional states in pigs. A variety of factors have been used and this literature overview will look into punishment and reward, fear and two general behaviours, each of which reflects a positive and a negative emotional state. Pigs' behaviour in response to different stimuli have been used as a template and positive emotional states is associated with an increased likelihood to perceive situations and events positively. Regardless of method, it is clear that it is problematic to measure emotional states in pigs. It is important to continue development of studies to improve the understanding of the results. The lack of measurements on positive emotions, however, makes the methods mentioned often focus on negative emotional states such as anxiety, fear and stress. More research on how positive emotions can be studied are also necessary to ensure the welfare of pigs and to maintain a healthy, prosperous and sustainable livestock production

    Mobil och smÄskalig slakt av idisslare

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    Runt om i hela vĂ€rlden, inklusive Sverige, pĂ„gĂ„r en omstrukturering av lantbruket och produktionen av animaliska livsmedel. Det innebĂ€r att antalet gĂ„rdar blir fĂ€rre, större och mer specialiserade, detsamma gĂ€ller för slakterierna. Eftersom mĂ„nga gĂ„rdar ligger belĂ€gna lĂ„ngt ifrĂ„n slakterierna sker i dagslĂ€get mĂ„nga lĂ„nga transporter av levande djur till slakt. Förutom att lĂ„nga transporter har en negativ inverkan pĂ„ miljön sĂ„ Ă€r de stressande för djuren som transporteras. En mĂ€ngd studier visar att transport alltid leder till stress hos djuren, Ă€ven om hanteringen av dem Ă€r god. Om djur stressas i samband med transport eller under sin vistelse pĂ„ slakteriet kan det pĂ„verka kvaliteten pĂ„ köttet, man talar dĂ„ om sĂ„ kallat ”stresskött”. PĂ„ senare tid har allt fler konsumenter blivit medvetna om att transport i samband med slakt kan innebĂ€ra ett lidande för djuren och man Ă€r dĂ€rför mycket kritisk till de lĂ„nga transporterna. Mobila slakterier, dvs. slakterier som transporteras ut till gĂ„rdarna och slaktar djuren pĂ„ plats, Ă€r ett initiativ för att minska transporten av levande djur. HĂ€lsingestintan, som sĂ€ger sig driva Europas första mobila slakteri för fullvuxen nötboskap, startades som ett svar pĂ„ marknadens efterfrĂ„gan pĂ„ lokalproducerat kött som slaktats smĂ„skaligt direkt pĂ„ gĂ„rden. Syftet med denna litteraturstudie var att försöka besvara frĂ„gestĂ€llningen om mobil och smĂ„skalig slakt utförd pĂ„ gĂ„rden Ă€r bĂ€ttre för djurens vĂ€lbefinnande och köttkvaliteten Ă€n slakt utförd pĂ„ ett storskaligt stationĂ€rt slakteri dit djuren mĂ„ste transporteras. Eventuella svĂ„righeter och nackdelar med mobil slakt undersöktes ocksĂ„, samt om det kan finnas en marknad med konsumenter som Ă€r beredda att betala det högre priset som mobil slakt innebĂ€r. Mobil slakt Ă€r relativt nytt och forskningen inom omrĂ„det Ă€r dĂ€rför vĂ€ldigt begrĂ€nsad, de studier som gjorts har ofta anvĂ€nt smĂ„ stickprov. Trots att studierna Ă€r fĂ„ och begrĂ€nsande i sin storlek talar de Ă€ndĂ„ för att djur som slipper transporteras till en för dem okĂ€nd plats för att slaktas uppvisar mindre stressbeteenden, har lĂ€gre vĂ€rden av kortisol i blodet och har mindre köttförluster pĂ„ slaktkropparna Ă€n de djur som behöver genomgĂ„ en lĂ€ngre slakttransport. Mobil slakt, liksom annan smĂ„skalig slakt som sker pĂ„ gĂ„rden tycks ha alla förutsĂ€ttningar att förbĂ€ttra djurens vĂ€lfĂ€rd. Flertalet studier visar pĂ„ att nötkreatur, lamm och bison som slipper transporteras till slakt Ă€r mindre stressade Ă€n de som genomgĂ„r transport, nĂ„got som ocksĂ„ tycks avspegla sig i köttkvaliteten. Forskningen tyder ocksĂ„ pĂ„ att det finns en köpstark marknad av konsumenter som Ă€r mycket mĂ„na om djurens vĂ€lmĂ„ende och som ocksĂ„ Ă€r beredda att betala den ökade kostnaden som mobil och gĂ„rdsnĂ€ra slakt innebĂ€r. Det finns behov av mer forskning om mobil slakt.All around the world, including Sweden, agriculture is being restructured. The farms become fewer, larger and more specialised, and the same is true for slaughterhouses. Since many farms are located far away from the nearest slaughterhouse, many live animals have to be transported a long distance to slaughter. The long transports have negative effects on the environment, but they are also stressful to the animals. Many studies show that transport always causes stress in the animals, even if the handling during transport is good. If animals are stressed during transport to slaughter the quality of the meat can be affected in a negative way, so-called ‘stress meat’. Consumers are increasingly aware that transport to slaughter can be the source of a great deal of suffering for the animals and are therefore very critical towards the long transports. Mobile abattoirs, slaughterhouses that are transported to the farm and process the animals on site, is a way to minimise the transport of live animals. The Swedish company HĂ€lsingestintan AB, which claims to be running the first mobile abattoir for large cattle in Europe, was started as an initiative to accommodate the markets demand for locally produced meat from small-scale -on-farm slaughter. The objective of this study was to determine whether mobile and small-scale slaughter on farm is better for the animal welfare and meat quality than slaughter at a large-scale stationary slaughterhouse to which the animals must be transported. Difficulties and downsides with mobile slaughter were studied and also if there is a market of consumers that are willing to pay a higher price for meat from a mobile abattoir. Mobile slaughter is a relatively new concept; hence the research within the area is limited. The studies that have been made have often used small samples. Even though the studies are few and limited in size, they indicate that animals who are not transported to a place for slaughter unfamiliar to them show less stress behaviours, have lower levels of cortisol in their blood and have less trim losses of the carcasses than animals who are transported a long distance to slaughter. Mobile slaughter, and other small-scale slaughter that takes place on farm, seems to have all the necessary conditions to improve animal welfare. Numerous studies imply that cattle, lamb and bison who do not have to be transported to slaughter are less stressed than those that are transported, which is also reflected in the meat quality. Research also implies that there is a market of consumers who care a great deal about the wellbeing of animals and are willing to pay the extra cost of mobile and on-farm slaughter. More research on mobile slaughter is required

    Kognitionsforskning i djurhÄllningen: grisars kognition och dess tillÀmpning vid slaktsvinshÄllning

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    Pigs are often mentioned as relatively intelligent animals when compared to other nonhuman species. Despite this knowledge, the vast majority of pigs are kept under conditions that lack opportunities to satisfy their cognitive needs. Therefore, a need to evaluate the present scientific studies about pig cognition was acknowledged, in order to evaluate to what extent the knowledge is applied in the husbandry of finishing pigs. If a considerable lack of application was determined, suggestions about how to use the obtained information to improve pig welfare were also to be made. A synthesis of the present literature was made, and it could be concluded that a considerable amount of studies had been carried out in the present area. The pigs of today appear to have the same behavioural and cognitive needs as their ancestor, the wild boar. They have advanced learning abilities and a good spatial memory. It has also been concluded that pigs appear to possess episodic memory to some extent. They may also have a theory of mind, and can adjust their behaviour to conspecifics that are present. Pigs seem to be able to evaluate how their own behaviour can lead to different consequences. They also seem to understand the mechanisms behind a mirror, and are able to use it to assess and evaluate their surroundings. Overall, the present scientific studies have been able to determine several higher cognitive functions in pigs. Therefore, finishing pigs are most likely to get bored and potentially stressed in the traditional housing systems. Systems that allow pigs to express their mental needs to a higher extent are likely to increase pig welfare to a more acceptable level. In those cases where new, more psychologically suitable housing systems can not be adopted, at least some environmental enrichment should be provided in the pigs’ present environment. Straw appears to be the most suitable enrichment for the pigs’ cognitive needs, since it allows them to express their needs to explore and forage. The feed can also be provided in a more cognitively challenging way. One of the most important factors that contribute to how pigs are looked upon and treated is how it is seen as a species. Our language refer to pigs as dirty, dumb and mean animals, which likely affects the public view of the species in a more or less subconscious way. Most people today never get to interact which live pigs either, which makes it easier for them to keep a distance from the pigs that we consume. A wider spread of the science behind pigs cognitive abilities is most likely required to change the overall attitude towards them as a species. It may be one of the most important welfare applications for pigs in the long term.Grisen omnĂ€mns ofta som en relativt intelligent djurart. Trots det lever dagens slaktsvin i miljöer med mycket begrĂ€nsade sysselsĂ€ttningsmöjligheter, trots att lagstiftningen specifikt krĂ€ver att behovet av sysselsĂ€ttning uppfylls. NĂ€r man talar om djurvĂ€lfĂ€rd tas ocksĂ„ störst hĂ€nsyn till djurs fysiska hĂ€lsa, medan deras mentala behov omnĂ€mns i efterhand eller inte alls. Ett behov fanns dĂ€rför av att sammanstĂ€lla den forskning som gjorts pĂ„ grisars kognition, det vill sĂ€ga hur de tar in, bearbetar och lagrar information frĂ„n sin omgivning och hur de beter sig utifrĂ„n den. I den hĂ€r litteraturstudien belyses grisars kognitiva behov, hur pass vĂ€l den forskning som gjorts tillĂ€mpas i praktiken samt hur informationen skulle kunna anvĂ€ndas för att slaktsvin ska mĂ„ bĂ€ttre psykiskt. Det kunde konstateras att en omfattande forskning pĂ„ grisars kognition har gjorts, sĂ€rskilt pĂ„ deras inlĂ€rningsförmĂ„ga och minne. Dagens grisar har fortfarande kvar deras vilda förfĂ€ders beteenden i vĂ€ldigt hög utstrĂ€ckning. Deras inlĂ€rningsförmĂ„ga Ă€r god, och de kan lĂ€ra sig uppgifter snabbare Ă€n vissa schimpanser och pĂ„ högre nivĂ„ Ă€n vissa hundar. De tycks ocksĂ„ kunna leva sig in i hur andra grisar tĂ€nker och förstĂ„ att de inte nödvĂ€ndigtvis behöver uppfatta situationer pĂ„ samma sĂ€tt som de sjĂ€lva, och kan anpassa sitt beteende efter den kĂ€nnedomen. De verkar ocksĂ„ kunna minnas nĂ€r och var en specifik hĂ€ndelse har Ă€gt rum. Grisar tycks ocksĂ„ förstĂ„ hur speglar fungerar och kan utvinna information frĂ„n dem. Studier har Ă€ven kunnat bekrĂ€fta att de kan anpassa sitt beteende efter andra nĂ€rvarande grisar, och att de verkar kunna reflektera över vilka konsekvenser som kan uppkomma nĂ€r de beter sig pĂ„ ett speciellt sĂ€tt. Eftersom forskningen tyder pĂ„ komplexa förmĂ„gor hos grisar blir slaktsvin sannolikt understimulerade i sin miljö. Det mest positiva vore om de hölls pĂ„ ett sĂ€tt som tillĂ„ter dem att uppvisa fler beteenden, men nĂ€r ekonomin hindrar lantbrukarna frĂ„n att göra större omstruktureringar i djurhĂ„llningen kan istĂ€llet miljöberikningar anvĂ€ndas i den redan befintliga miljön. En form av berikning som ger tydliga positiva effekter Ă€r utfodringssystem som gör att grisarna mĂ„ste tĂ€nka till för att fĂ„ tillgĂ„ng till fodret. Det minskar och förebygger uttrĂ„kning. Det Ă€r ocksĂ„ positivt att ge grisar halm att manipulera, dĂ„ det pĂ„ ett bra sĂ€tt tillgodoser grisarnas behov av att undersöka, söka föda, böka och tugga. För att vĂ€lfĂ€rden hos grisar pĂ„ sikt ska förbĂ€ttras behöver bĂ„de allmĂ€nheten och lantbrukarna bli mer medvetna om vilka kognitiva förmĂ„gor som grisarna har. En förĂ€ndrad attityd och instĂ€llning till vad grisen egentligen Ă€r för ett djur kan i framtiden pĂ„verka hur vi behandlar dem, pĂ„ ett sĂ€tt som leder till ökad vĂ€lfĂ€rd och ett ökat mentalt vĂ€lmĂ„ende hos slaktsvinen i vĂ„rt land

    Lekbeteende hos gepard (Acinonyx jubatus) och möjligheterna i att förbÀttra vÀlfÀrd genom lek hos stora kattdjur i fÄngenskap

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    Felids are displayed in zoos and parks all over the world but are often kept in unsuitable enclosures. Stereotypic behaviours are therefore commonly observed in large captive cats caused by a lack of a stimulating environment. To prevent this, keepers use different enrichments to encourage animals to express natural behaviours such as running, investigating and playing. Play behaviour has recently attained more attention and has been suggested to be an indicator of good welfare as well as possibly being the cause of it. This study aimed to investigate if play can be stimulated by presenting environmental enrichments, or “toys”. In this study two litters of cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) cubs of various ages that were presented with a Boomer ball. Behavioural data were collected during two weeks. The first week was used as a baseline and during the second week a Boomer ball were presented .The result show a small increase in object play, even though the cubs did not use the Boomer ball during the time of observation. The most commonly observed type of play was contact social play, but the litters spent the majority of the time resting. This might have been affected by the chosen time of day for the observations. The results of this study did not indicate the possibility of stimulating play in cheetah cubs, but it does not rule out the possibility of a better result during different circumstances. If play could be increased by presenting environmental enrichments and if the theory of play was confirmed to cause positive emotions, this could result in a practically manageable way to improve the welfare of captive animals. Future research might hand us the tools to measure emotions in animals and the effect of how animals feel, creating a major step forward in animal keeping
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