The Construction of Czech National History

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La produzione di una storiografia nazionale nelle piccole nazioni

In questo contributo l’autore, sulla base delle sue precedenti ricerche sui movimenti nazionali nelle cosiddette piccole nazioni, analizza il modo in cui queste ultime hanno prodotto una propria storiografia nazionale e traccia un parallelo con il farsi di una storiografia nazionale negli stati-nazione di più antica formazione, mettendone in evidenza differenze e tratti comuni. Writing National History for Small Nations Abstract: In this article the author, on the basis of his previous research on national movements in the so-called small nations, analyzes how the writing of national history developed in them and draws a parallel with the writing of national history in established nation-states, highlighting both differences and common traits

Naród jako fenomen właściwy Europie

This paper presents two arguments, which have not yet been formulated: 1) European nations did not arise as a product of “nationalism” but are the result of an asynchronous, deep identity crisis, occurring in Europe with modernization processes, which questioned old social relations and value systems. New proto-civil society (strictly speaking: his protagonists) has been formed later as a nation, whereas the concept of a nation had been existing for a long time before and with positive connotations, 2) authorities and administrative systems, which in today’s world is defined in English as “nations” are the product of a phenomenon known as “nationalism” and not fall into the same category as bearing the same name communities in Europe. Vague and ambiguous concept of “nationalism” is used incorrectly as a tool of causal analysis of the processes the formation of European nations. This leads to distortion of European history and to unproductive and leading astray discussion about the nature and meaning of an idea called “nationalism”. When examining the phenomenon of nations in Europe, it is necessary to check the origin of the concepts and possible areas of use.W artykule przedstawiono dwie tezy, które nie zostały dotąd w nauce sformułowane: 1) europejskie narody nie powstały jako produkt „nacjonalizmu”, lecz są następstwem występującego w Europie – jako zjawisko towarzyszące modernizacji – asynchronicznego, głębokiego kryzysu tożsamości, w toku którego poddano w wątpliwość stare zależności i systemy wartości. Nowe protoobywatelskie społeczeństwo (mówiąc dokładnie: jego protagoniści) ukształtowało się następnie jako „naród”, przy czym pojęcie „naród” istniało już od wczesnych czasów nowożytnych i miało pozytywne konotacje, 2) administracja i jednostki władzy, które w obecnym świecie określa się po angielsku jako nations, są produktem fenomenu zwanego nationalism i nie należą do tej samej kategorii, co noszące to samo miano wspólnoty w Europie. Niejasne i wieloznaczne pojęcie nationalism  jest mylnie stosowane jako instrument przyczynowej analizy procesów powstawania europejskich narodów. Prowadzi to do deformacji obrazu europejskiej historii oraz do nieproduktywnych i wiodących na bezdroża dyskusji o charakterze i sensie fenomenu o nazwie nationalism. Przy badaniu zjawiska narodów w Europie konieczne jest sprawdzanie pochodzenia pojęć i możliwych obszarów ich stosowania

Reflexões sobre a história nacional: o caso da Europa no século XIX

In the 19th century, writing national history became an irreplaceable part of European nation formation. To have “its own” history was a basic condition for being accepted as a nation, not only at international level, but, above all inwards. As part of national mobilization, it tried to reinforce identification with the nation; legitimized national existence and provided to its members some kind of immortality; served as basis for creating or strengthening national values. National history could not proceed from the same model to all European nations; it was constructed according to different situations, corresponding to possibilities to “nationalize” the past.No século XIX, escrever a história nacional tornou-se imprescindível à formação nacional européia. Ter sua“própria” história era condição básica para uma nação ser aceita, não apenas no âmbito internacional, mas, sobretudo, internamente. Como elemento de mobilização nacional, buscava reforçar a identificação com a nação, legitimava a existência nacional, assegurava a seus membros uma espécie de imortalidade, ajudava a criar ou fortalecer valores nacionais. A história nacional não poderia proceder de um mesmo modelo para todas as nações da Europa; foi construída de acordo com diferentes situações que correspondiam às possibilidades de “nacionalizar” o passado

De l'ethnicité à la nation. Un chemin oublié vers la modernité

De l'ethnicité à la nationUn chemin oublié vers la modernitéDans cet article, l'auteur s'interroge sur la manière dont les groupes ethniques se sont transformés en nations dans la modernité. Il soutient qu'on ne peut étudier cette transition sans analyser la modernisation et la rupture des liens, des valeurs et des identités que celle-ci induisit dans le monde d'hier. En lieu et place se forgèrent des identités régionales et ethnonationales. L'auteur montre que sans qu'elles s'excluent mutuellement, l'identité nationale s'imposa pour deux raisons : 1) les relations ethnoculturelles se sont cristallisées historiquement autour de l'État; 2) l'identité nationale s'est avérée plus congruente avec la modernité. L'auteur s'interroge sur l'évolution d'un groupe ethnique non dominant vers le mouvement national tout en soulignant qu'elle demeure incertaine.From Ethnicity to NationA Forgotten Road to ModernityThe basic aim of this article is to inquire into the conditions which brought about the transformation of ethnie groups into modem nations. The author proceeds from the assumption that it is impossible to analyze this process without taking into account the economie and social transformation of late feudal society, usually referred to as the process of modernization. Accompanying the crisis of the old society was a break-down of former lies, values and identities. In their place, two new identities were offered : one regional and one ethno-national. The author concludes that although these two identities were not mutually exclusive, national identities won recognition (as the condition for nation-formation) in those instances where the following prerequisites held : 1) that already since the Middle Ages ties and relations within the ethnie group had been formed in combination with ties within the administrative whole (i.e. the state), and 2) that with respect to both the economie and social transformation and to the change in mentality, the concept of national identity responded better than did regional identity upon the arrivai of modem society. In this explanation, the author focuses on the evolution of a non-dominant ethnie group into a nation, and characterizes this development as a national movement, the success of which, however, was not assured in advance

GRBAlpha: the smallest astrophysical space observatory -- Part 1: Detector design, system description and satellite operations

Aims. Since launched on 2021 March 22, the 1U-sized CubeSat GRBAlpha operates and collects scientific data on high-energy transients, making it the smallest astrophysical space observatory to date. GRBAlpha is an in-obit demonstration of a gamma-ray burst (GRB) detector concept suitably small to fit into a standard 1U volume. As it was demonstrated in a companion paper, GRBAlpha adds significant value to the scientific community with accurate characterization of bright GRBs, including the recent outstanding event of GRB 221009A. Methods. The GRB detector is a 75x75x5 mm CsI(Tl) scintillator wrapped in a reflective foil (ESR) read out by an array of SiPM detectors, multi-pixel photon counters by Hamamatsu, driven by two separate, redundant units. To further protect the scintillator block from sunlight and protect the SiPM detectors from particle radiation, we apply a multi-layer structure of Tedlar wrapping, anodized aluminium casing and a lead-alloy shielding on one edge of the assembly. The setup allows observations of gamma radiation within the energy range of 70-890 keV with an energy resolution of ~30%. Results. Here, we summarize the system design of the GRBAlpha mission, including the electronics and software components of the detector, some aspects of the platform as well as the current way of semi-autonomous operations. In addition, details are given about the raw data products and telemetry in order to encourage the community for expansion of the receiver network for our initiatives with GRBAlpha and related experiments.Comment: Accepted for publication in Astronomy & Astrophysics, 9 pages, 10 figure

The peak-flux of GRB 221009A measured with GRBAlpha

The brightest gamma-ray burst ever observed, long-duration GRB 221009A, was detected by GRBAlpha nano-satellite without saturation. We present light curves of the prompt emission in 13 energy bands, from 80 keV to 950 keV, and perform a spectral analysis to calculate the peak flux and peak isotropic-equivalent luminosity. Since the satellite's attitude information is not available for the time of this GRB, more than 200 incident directions were probed in order to find the median luminosity and its systematic uncertainty. We found that the peak flux in the $80-800$ keV range (observer frame) was $F_{\rm{ph}}^{\rm{p}}=1300_{-200}^{+1200}$ ph cm$^{-2}$s$^{-1}$ or $F_{\rm{erg}}^{\rm{p}}=5.7_{-0.7}^{+3.7}\times10^{-4}$ erg cm$^{-2}$s$^{-1}$ and the fluence in the same energy range of the first GRB episode lasting 300 s, which was observable by GRBAlpha, was $S=2.2_{-0.3}^{+1.4}\times10^{-2}$ erg cm$^{-2}$ or $S^{\rm{bol}}=4.9_{-0.5}^{+0.8}\times10^{-2}$ erg cm$^{-2}$ for the extrapolated range of $0.9-8,690$ keV. We infer the isotropic-equivalent released energy of the first GRB episode to be $E_{\rm{iso}}^{\rm{bol}}=2.8_{-0.5}^{+0.8}\times10^{54}$ erg in the $1-10,000$ keV band (rest frame at $z=0.15$). The peak isotropic-equivalent luminosity in the $92-920$ keV range (rest frame) was $L_{\rm{iso}}^{\rm{p}}=3.7_{-0.5}^{+2.5}\times10^{52}$ erg s$^{-1}$ and the bolometric peak isotropic-equivalent luminosity was $L_{\rm{iso}}^{\rm{p,bol}}=8.4_{-1.5}^{+2.5}\times10^{52}$ erg s$^{-1}$ (4 s scale) in the $1-10,000$ keV range (rest frame). The peak emitted energy is $E_p^\ast=E_p(1+z)=1120\pm470$ keV. Our measurement of $L_{\rm{iso}}^{\rm{p,bol}}$ is consistent with the Yonetoku relation. It is possible that, due to the spectral evolution of this GRB and orientation of GRBAlpha at the peak time, the true values of peak flux, fluence, $L_{\rm{iso}}$, and $E_{\rm{iso}}$ are even higher. [abridged]Comment: 7 pages, 7 figures, 1 table, accepted for publication in Astronomy & Astrophysic

Language, Religion, and Ethnic Civil War

Are certain ethnic cleavages more conflict-prone than others? While only few scholars focus on the contents of ethnicity, most of those who do argue that political violence is more likely to occur along religious divisions than linguistic ones. We challenge this claim by analyzing the path from linguistic differences to ethnic civil war along three theoretical steps: (1) the perception of grievances by group members, (2) rebel mobilization, and (3) government accommodation of rebel demands. Our argument is tested with a new data set of ethnic cleavages that records multiple linguistic and religious segments for ethnic groups from 1946 to 2009. Adopting a relational perspective, we assess ethnic differences between potential challengers and the politically dominant group in each country. Our findings indicate that intrastate conflict is more likely within linguistic dyads than among religious ones. Moreover, we find no support for the thesis that Muslim groups are particularly conflict-prone