The Compounds of the Pāli Language in the Fourth Chapter of the Grammatical Work Kaccāyanabyākaraṇa

Ovaj rad na filološki način prikazuje poglavlje o složenicama starog pālijskog gramatičkog djela u svjetlu utjecaja dviju sanskrtskih gramatika. Dosad je ova pālijska gramatika, koju je po predaji sastavio Kaccāyana, bila predstavljana kao djelo koje u potpunosti ovisi o sanskrtskoj gramatici po imenu Kātantra. Taj se pristup uvriježio posebno među nekim zapadnim prakrtskim filolozima. On se dovodi u pitanje u ovom radu. Odabrano je poglavlje o složenicama jer je reprezentativno. Pokazano je da je shvaćanje jednog tipa složenice (dvigu) potpuno, a još jednog tipa većinom (dvandva) preuzeto iz Pāṇinijeve gramatike. Osnovna metoda rada je usporedba.The presupposition of this philological paper is that the chapter on the compounds of the Pāli language can serve to represent a specimen of the Kaccāyana grammar. The result of the philological research in this chapter can be to a certain degree extended to other chapters as well. The result of this philological research is twofold. Its first part shows that the contents of two Sanskrit grammars, the Pāṇini’s and the Śarvavarman’s, underlie the inner structure of the Kaccāyana grammar and not only Śarvavarman’s Kātantra as some Middle Indo-Aryan philologists argued. By stating that the Kaccāyana grammar was but an adaptation of the Kātantra grammar, some Indo-Aryan philologists (O. H. Pind, H. Smith and J. Charpentier) identified the sources of the first Pāli grammar incompletely. This paper shows that not only the Kātantra grammar served as a model for the Kaccāyana grammar but that also some segments of the Aṣṭādhyāyī grammar laid the foundation of the first Pāli grammar. This outcome of the research is supported by two important facts: (1) The definition of the dvigu type of compounds was directly taken over from the Aṣṭādhyāyī grammar (Aṣṭādhyāyī 2. 1. 52) and translated from Sanskrit into Pāli; (2) The origin of over one third of the suttas about compounds can be directly or indirectly traced back to the sūtras of the Aṣṭādhyāyī grammar, and, additionally, the percentage of the important segments of the Aṣṭādhyāyī grammar present in the chapter on the compounds of the Kaccāyana grammar is high. (It is around 36 %.) It is possible to show that the Kātantra grammar and the Aṣṭādhyāyī grammar are equally important grammatical ancestors of the first Pāli grammar. Its second part brings to light that in Kaccāyana’s grammar there are no religious Brahmanical elements that may be present in Sanskrit grammars. The Kaccāyanabyākaraṇa transfers the grammatical methods of description into the Pāli language preserving its Buddhist flavour and cultural context

Ехtraction of thyme (Thimus vulgaris L.) By supercritical carbon dioxide

Ispitana je ekstrakcija timijana (Thymus vulgaris L.) primenom ugljendioksida u superkritičnom stanju kao ekstragensa. Razrađen je postupak tečne hromatografije pod visokim pritiskom (HPLC) za određivanje farmakološki aktivnih fenolnih jedinjenja, timola i karvakrola, koji obezbeđuje visok stepen reproduktivnosti određivanja (za timol Kw = 1,29%). Za kvalitativnu i kvantitativnu analizu proizvoda na bazi timijana, etarskog ulja i ekstrakata, primenjen je metod gasne hromatografije (GC) sa masenom spektrometrijom (MS). Sadržaj etarskog ulja određen oficinalnim postupkom koji propisuje jugoslovenska farmakopeja iznosi 1,75% (V/m). Dominantna komponenta etarskog ulja timijana je timol čiji je sadržaj 50,06% (m/m), dok je karvakrol prisutan, praktično, u tragovima (1,15%). Od prisutnih parafina u etarskom ulju, največi sadržaj ima n-tetradekan (16,11%). U totalnom ekstraktu timijana dobijenom metilen- hloridom primenom ekstrakcije sa povremenim ispuštanjem ekstrakta (Ekstrakcija po Soxhlet-u), koji je dobijen u prinosu 4,95% (m/m), dominantna komponenta je n-tetradekan (47,18%), dok je sadržaj timola 16,11%. Kinetika ekstrakcije timola se može uspešno predstaviti analogno izrazu za kinetiku reakcije prvog reda, primenom koje se dobija največa vrednost konstante brzine ekstrakcije (k) 0,2209 h-1 za selektovani protok superkritičnog ugijendioksida 97,725 dm3/h. Primenom timijana stepena usitnjenosti d2 srednjeg prečnika 0,35 mm za ekstrakciju superkritičnim ugijendioksidom (100 bar; 40°C; 2,5 sata) postiže se kvantitativna ekstrakcije prisutnog etarskog ulja. Po svom sastavu ovaj ekstrakt je najsličniji etarskom ulju timijana dobijenom destliacijom pomoću vodene pare. Produžavanje vremena ekstrakcije iznad 2,5 sata ima za posledicu povećani prinos, pre svega, parafina. Primenom ugljendioksida male moći rastvaranja (80 bar; 400C;  d=0,1918 g/cm3) ne postiže se kvantitativna ekstrakcija etarskog ulja. Povećavanjem radnog pritiska od 100 do 400 bar, usled povećanja moći rastvaranja, dobijaju se ekstrakti koji su po svom sastavu sve sličniji totalnom ekstraktu dobijenom ekstrakcijom metilenhloridom. Za modelovanje ekstrakcionog sistema timijan - superkritični ugljendioksid je primenjena jednačina Reverchon-a i Sesti Osseo-a:                                          Y = 100 [1-exp(-t/ti)] gde je: Y - normalizovani ekstrakcioni prinos (%); t - vreme ekstrakcije (s) i ti -       vreme unutrašnje difuzije (s) odnosno njen modifikovani oblik:                                         Y = 100 [1 - ehr (at + b)] Izračunate vrednosti standardne greške regresije (SY,X) ukazuju da u osnovi modifikovana jednačina bolje fituje normalizovane prinose kako totalnog ekstrakta, tako i timola, u odnosu na polaznu jednačinu. Jednačine:    log S = a mrel + b i    log S = a dC02 + b gde je: S - rastvorljivost totalnog ekstrakta (g/dm3), odnosno timola (mg/dm ) u ugljendioksidu; mrel - relativna masa ugljendioksida (g CO2/g timijana) i dCO2 zapreminska masa ugljendioksida (g/cm3) se mogu, takođe, uspešno primeniti za modelovanje ekstrakcije ispitivanog sistema. Primenom ugljendioksida u tečnom stanju (65 bar; 23°C) se dobija ekstrakt timijana sličan po svom sastavu ekstraktu dobijenom ekstrakcijom superkritičnim ekstragensom na pritisku 100 bar. U cilju dobijanja ekstrakta timijana koji je po svom kvalitativnom i kvantitativnom sastavu najsličniji etarskom ulju dobijenom oficinalnim postupkom destilacije pomoću vodene pare, neophodno je za ekstrakciju koristiti ugljendioksid zapreminske mase 0,6302 g/cm3( 100 bar;40°C), biljni materijal stepena usitnjenosti d2, vreme ekstrakcije 2,5 sata i protok ekstragensa 97,725 dm3/h.The extraction of thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.) by supercritical carbon dioxide as an extragent was investigated. The developed HPLC (High Pressure Liquid Chromatography) method for determination of pharmacologically active phenolic compounds, thymol and carvacrol, showed a high reproducibility (Kw for thymol 1.29%). Qualitative and quantitative analyses of thyme products, essential oil and extracts, were carried out by gas chromatography - mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The content of essential oil determined by an official procedure given by Yugoslav pharmacopoeia was 1.75% (V/w). The predominant compound of the essential oil is thymol (50.06%; w/w), while carvacrol is present, practically, in traces (1.15%; w/w). The content of n-tetradecane in the thyme essential oil (16.11%; w/w) is higher than that of other paraffins. In the total thyme extract obtained by methylene chloride using extraction with periodical exchange of the extract (Soxhlet extraction) in a yield of 4.95%(w/w), the predominant compound was n-tetradecane (47.18%), while the content of thymol was 16.11%. The extraction kinetic of thymol can be successfully expressed by analogy to first order reaction kinetic, and a highest value of extraction rate constant (k) of 0.2209 h-1 for the selected flow rate of supercritical carbon dioxide of 97.725 dm3/h. A quantitative extraction of thyme essential oil by supercritical carbon dioxide (100 bar; 40°C; 2.5hours) was obtained using thyme of the grinding degree d2 (mean particle diameter 0.35 mm). The composition of this extract is very similar to that of the essential oil obtained by steam distillation. A higher yield of extraction, primarily of paraffins, was obtained by prolonging the extraction time over 2.5 hours. The use of carbon dioxide of low solubility power (80 bar; 400C; d =0.1918 g/cm3) did not yield a quantitative extraction of thyme essential oil. Ву increasing extraction pressure from 100 to 400 bar, i.e. solubility power, the extract composition was more and more similar to the composition of total extract obtained by methylene chloride. То model extraction of the system thyme - supercritical carbon dioxide use was made of the Reverchon - Sesti Osseo equation:                   Y = 100 [1-exp(-t/ti)] where: Y - normalized extraction yield (%); t - extraction time (s) and ti - internal diffusion time (s) i.e. of its modified form:                  Y = 100 [1 - ехр (at + b)] The calculated values of standard error of regression (SY,X) show that the modified equation is generally a better fit for the normalized yields of total extract and thymol compared to the original equation. Equations:         log S = a mrel + b and          log S = a dC02 + b where: S - solubility of total extract (g/dm3), i.e. of thymol (mg/dm3) in carbon dioxide; mrel - relative mass of carbon dioxide (g CO2/g thyme) and dCO2 carbon dioxide density (g/cm3) could be successfully used for modelling of the investigated extraction system. The composition of thyme extract obtained by liquid carbon dioxide (65 bar; 23°C ) is very similar to that obtained by supercritical extragent at a pressure of 100 bar. То obtain a thyme extract whose qualitative and quantitative characteristics are most similar to those of the essential oil obtained using official procedure by steam distillation, it is necessary to use a carbon dioxide density of 0.6302 g/cm3 (100 bar; 400C), grinding degree of thyme d2, extraction time of 2.5 hours and extragent flow rate of 97.725 dm3/h

INFLUENCE OF STORAGE TIME ON QUALITY OF SPRAY-DRIED EXTRACTS OF BASIL (OCIMUM BASILICUM L.)

Sweet basil (Ocimum basilicum L.), a member of the Lamiaceae family, is the major essential oil crop which is cultivated commercially in many countries. The aromatic leaves of basil are used fresh or dried as a flavoring agent for foods, confectionery products and beverages. In the current study macerates of basil were spray dried with addition of 0%, 10%, 20% and 30% maltodextrin. In order to evaluate influence of storage time on quality of four basil powders the moisture content, rehydration, bulk density, total phenolic and total flavonoid contents were tested immediately after production and after 50 days long storage at room temperature in desiccator. This study showed that 50 days long storage time did not influence negatively on quality of basil powders regarding all investigated parameters except moisture content which rose for 30 - 40 %

Isolation and GC Analysis of Fatty Acids: Study Case of Stinging Nettle Leaves

Urtica dioica L. is perennial plant with remarkable medical properties and has been widely used in folk medicine and as a food. Fatty acids presented in its leaves were extracted applying three different techniques: classic, automated Soxhlet, and supercritical fluid extraction (SFE). SFE was performed at three different pressures (100, 200, and 300 bar) and two different temperatures (40 and 60°C). Obtained extract was analyzed using GC-FID analytical technique in order to obtain fatty acid profile samples. The highest yield was obtained in the case of automated Soxhlet extraction (218.907 mg/g), while the lowest was observed in the case of classic extraction (15.031 mg/g). Soxhlet approach provided the highest yield of saturated fatty acids (173.348 mg/g), while supercritical fluid extraction gave better results in the case of unsaturated fatty acids (60.062 mg/g). Deeper analysis of SFE extracts revealed relationship between extraction parameters (temperature and pressure) and yields of fatty acids where lower pressure ensured higher yield of unsaturated while higher pressure gave higher yield of saturated acids. On the other hand, increasing in temperature at isobaric conditions negatively influenced the yield of fatty acids except in the case of 300 bar where yield was higher at 60°C

Hydrodistillation versus microwave-assisted hydrodistillation of sage herbal dust: kinetics, chemical profile and bioactivity

Essential oils are gaining attention from the academic and industrial communities due to numerous biological activities and a broad spectrum of applications. With the arrival of the “green era”, there was a need to reduce the production of waste materials and to make better use of natural resources. Due to the ever-increasing market of functional foods, the search for new natural, bioactive components is a hot topic on which a lot of research effort is being focused currently and biorefinery has recently emerged as a promising approach which could lead towards a sustainable concept of production. Therefore, the aim of this work was the valorization of sage herbal dust which is being generated as a by-product from filter tea factories. Conventional hydrodistillation (HD) and microwave-assisted hydrodistillation (MWHD) were applied for the essential oil recovery. The influence of heating (205 and 410 W) and microwave irradiation (90, 180, 360, 600 and 800 W) power on distillation kinetics and the chemical profile of the essential oils was evaluated. Empirical mathematical models were used for the modeling of process kinetics. The chemical profile was evaluated by HPTLC and GC-MS and monoterpenes (camphor, α-thujone, and eucalyptol), sesquiterpenes (viridiflorol) and diterpene polyphenols (epirosmanol) were the most abundant compounds identified. The high antioxidant capacity of the obtained essential oils, determined by the DPPH assay, suggested that sage herbal dust could be successfully utilized as a raw material for essential oil recovery

Comparison of hydrodistillation (HD), microwave-assisted hydrodistillation (MHD) and supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) for the isolation of volatiles from chamomile flower

Chamomile flower (Matricariae flos) is a herbal drug used mainly because of antiphlogistic, spasmolytic and antimicrobial properties, which are related to the presence of volatile essential-oil constituents (α-bisabolol and its oxides, chamazulene, spiroethers) and non-volatile compounds, such as sesquiterpene lactones, flavonoids, and coumarins.                In the present work, we used hydrodistillation (HD; sample-to-solvent ratio 1:20, 2 h), microwave-assisted HD (MHD; sample-to-solvent ratio 1:20, 2 h, microwave power 180 W) and supercritical CO2 extraction (SFE; 40 °C, 100 bar, 3 h) to obtain isolates, from a commercially available chamomile flower tea. The composition of the isolates was analyzed using GC-MS. The obtained results of the relative content of the selected pharmacologically relevant constituents were as follows.                HD and MHD yielded 0.2% and 0.3% of isolates, respectively. A much higher yield was obtained in the case of SFE (3%). In HD and MHD isolates, which were qualitatively and quantitatively similar, oxygenated sesquiterpenes dominated (64.4-67.4%), with bisabolol oxides comprising 54.2-54.4% of the isolates. Among non-terpene constituents (17.0-19.9%), spiroethers were present with 10.0% and 11.7% of HD and MHD isolates, respectively. Chamazulene (4.8-4.9%) was the most abundant among sesquiterpene hydrocarbons (8.8-9.7%). On the other hand, non-terpene compounds (57.4%) were the most abundant class of constituents in SFE extract, and among them hydrocarbons comprised 45.0% of the extract, followed by 10.2% of spiroethers. Among the oxygenated sesquiterpenes (32.2%), SFE extract contained 25.8% of bisabolol oxides. In contrast to HD and MHD, SFE resulted in a low amount of chamazulene, but the extract contained 3.2% of valuable sesquiterpene lactones.                Having in mind that HD and MHD resulted in similar yields and compositions of the isolates, and that SFE gave a higher amount of the isolate with a unique composition, the choice of traditional vs modern technique for the preparation of chamomile isolates should be strongly dependent on the specific use of the final product and in that sense carefully evaluated

Bioconversion of apigenin-7-O-β-glucoside in aqueous two-phase system

The study is concerned with the conversion of apigenin-7-O-β-glucoside into apigenin in polyethylene glycol 6000 / dextran 20000 aqueous two-phase system by β-glucosidase. Apigenin was separated from apigenin-7-O-β-glucoside and β-glucosidase by their partition into opposite phases. In 14% PEG / 22.5% DEX aqueous two-phase system obtained yield of apigenin in top phase was 108%