Agriculture, technology, and conflict

Conflict and agriculture have a long, shared history. The purpose of this research is to look at the relationships between agriculture, agricultural technologies, and conflict during current and recent conflicts, large scale and localized. Agriculture and its related technologies are often affected by conflict, but rarely acknowledged as a cause or solution to conflict. Literature reviews in six topic areas illustrate various facets of the relationship between agriculture and conflict. Research conducted in Santa Cruz del Quiché, Guatemala illustrates the ways farmers were impacted by the country’s civil war. It also examines farmer survival strategies during the war, and reveals the presence of minor localized conflict over water resources. Conflict over land is not a major concern at present. Market access for inputs and outputs are shown to have been a problem for a number of farmers during the civil war. The poverty of Santa Cruz farmers indicates that much could be gained by rural development. Research is unable to support the hypotheses that agricultural technologies have prevented or caused conflict in Santa Cruz del Quiché, or that they have played a large role in recovery from the country’s civil war. The author recommends that future research be undertaken in regions with a diverse set of agricultural technologies, and/or a recent history of significant technological change in agriculture. Policy recommendations include providing secure access to markets during war time, increasing capacity for home-based rural production, and continuing research into resilient crops. Finally, the author suggests that the responsible decision to develop, adopt, or introduce an agricultural technology must take into account the social consequences of that decision, including how the new technology may alleviate or contribute to conflict

Integration of Crop-Livestock Systems: An Opportunity toProtect Grasslands from Conversion to Cropland in the US Great Plains

The Great Plains is a mixture of cropland and grassland mainly used for agricultural purposes, with grasslands under continual threat of conversion to cropland. Agriculturists are advocating for the integration of crop-livestock systems (ICLS) to recouple nutrient cycles, improve biodiversity, and increase resilience of agricultural operations. We address the benefits of ICLS in the Great Plains, contending that focus on improving soil health and financial stability of agricultural operations should reduce the conversion of grasslands to cropland. Using US Department of Agriculture National Agricultural Statistics Service Census of Agriculture survey data from the 1925 to 2017 category “cropland used only for pasture or grazing,” which represents land that had been cropped but converted to annual/perennial pasture and grazed, we showcase that the number of farms and the land area in this category is a reasonable proxy of ICLS. As expected, ICLS dramatically decreased in the entire United States from 1925 to 1945, but from 1945 to 2002 in the Great Plains ICLS remained relatively constant, providing evidence of sustained crop-livestock integration. Consistent high numbers of beef cows during this period and the wide availability of forages and crop residues for ruminants facilitated opportunities for producers to use ICLS on their individual operations (within farm) or among operations where row crop farmers and forage-based producers integrated beef cattle use across the landscape (among farms). This integration, however, was decoupled from 2006 to 2013, a period of high grain prices. As a result, economic value of grasslands was decreased and conversion to cropland was increased. Thus, conservation efforts in the Great Plains for grasslands should focus on keeping grasslands intact for provision of multiple ecosystem goods and services by emphasizing incorporation of ICLS within and among farms to reduce the risk of converting grassland to cropland

Integration of Crop-Livestock Systems: An Opportunity to Protect Grasslands from Conversion to Cropland in the US Great Plains

The Great Plains is a mixture of cropland and grassland mainly used for agricultural purposes, with grasslands under continual threat of conversion to cropland. Agriculturists are advocating for the integration of crop-livestock systems (ICLS) to recouple nutrient cycles, improve biodiversity, and increase resilience of agricultural operations. We address the benefits of ICLS in the Great Plains, contending that focus on improving soil health and financial stability of agricultural operations should reduce the conversion of grasslands to cropland. Using US Department of Agriculture National Agricultural Statistics Service Census of Agriculture survey data from the 1925−2017 category “cropland used only for pasture or grazing,” which represents land that had been cropped but converted to annual/perennial pasture and grazed, we showcase that the number of farms and the land area in this category is a reasonable proxy of ICLS. As expected, ICLS dramatically decreased in the entire United States from 1925 to 1945, but from 1945 to 2002 in the Great Plains ICLS remained relatively constant, providing evidence of sustained crop-livestock integration. Consistent high numbers of beef cows during this period and the wide availability of forages and crop residues for ruminants facilitated opportunities for producers to use ICLS on their individual operations (within farm) or among operations where row crop farmers and forage-based producers integrated beef cattle use across the landscape (among farms). This integration, however, was decoupled from 2006 to 2013, a period of high grain prices. As a result, economic value of grasslands was decreased and conversion to cropland was increased. Thus, conservation efforts in the Great Plains for grasslands should focus on keeping grasslands intact for provision of multiple ecosystem goods and services by emphasizing incorporation of ICLS within and among farms to reduce the risk of converting grassland to cropland

Design and Creation of a Dynamic Homework System

This paper describes the creation of a dynamic online homework system, that through its versatility covers a variety of subjects, is educational for students, and is productive for educators. The prototype in development has the potential to cover a broad range of subject areas across many disciplines. The homework questions in the system are themselves dynamically generated from templates, each of which refers to a set of dynamically generated graphics. A feedback component of the application records data from student responses in a database, which instructors can access for grading and identifying misconceptions among their students. Future versions of the program will load and execute code from a database during runtime, making the application even more flexible

Rehabilitating Invaded Rangeland in Central South Dakota with Grazing, Seeding, and Herbicide

Rangelands in the northern Great Plains are threatened by invasive C3 annual and perennial grasses that displace native C4 grasses. Rehabilitating these rangelands by reintroducing native C4 grass species could extend the season in which relatively higher-quality forage is available for livestock grazing and improve wildlife habitat. Three seeding treatments, four herbicide treatments, and two stocking densities were applied to a pasture in central South Dakota, United States, that was dominated by invasive C3 grasses. Grazing and herbicide treatments were designed to suppress exotic cool season grasses. Drought limited establishment during the first 2 yr, but C3 grasses were successfully controlled during this time. Plots drill-seeded and sprayed with glyphosate established a mean of 1.0 seeded grasses m−2 by the third yr. Unseeded plots and plots that did not receive glyphosate failed. This trend continued into yr 5, when the most successful treatments were composed of 10−14% seeded C4 grasses, as determined by a modified step-point count technique. Stocking density did not affect establishment success. It is possible to sup- press C3 invasive grasses with herbicide and establish native C4 tallgrasses in central South Dakota, but drought makes it a risky proposition in this semiarid region

Integrating Cotton and Beef Production in the Texas Southern High Plains: A Simulation Approach

This study uses a simulation approach to determine the economic viability of two different production systems in the Texas Southern High Plains. Results show that a traditional cotton monoculture system is more profitable, although integrated cotton/forage/livestock systems require less water

Energy and Carbon Costs of Selected Cow-Calf Systems

Fossil fuel-derived inputs can increase cow-calf production per unit of land or labor but can raise financial and environmental concerns. Eleven US cow-calf systems from nine ecological regions in Iowa, South Dakota, Tennessee, and Texas were analyzed to determine quantities of energy used and carbon (C) emitted due to fossil fuel use (excluding emissions from soils and biota) and to determine how management and environment influenced those quantities. Total energy and C cost, calculated cow-1 or ha-1, were highly correlated (0.99). Energy use cow-1 and ha-1 varied greatly across systems, ranging from 3 000 to 12 600 megajoules (MJ) cow-1 yr-1 and from 260 to 20 800 MJ ha-1 yr-1. As stocking rate increased, MJ cow-1 increased at an increasing rate. Differences in quantity of fertilizer accounted for most variation in energy use. Fertilizer allowed higher stocking rates but reduced energy efficiency of liveweight marketed. Compared to intensive, higher stocking rate systems, rangeland systems based on native or naturalized forages used little or no fertilizer, but used more energy cow-1 for crude protein (CP) supplementation, fencing, and pickup trucks. Across all systems, energy used to produce winter feed ranged from 0% to 46% of total energy. Northern systems used higher percentages of total energy for winter feed and fed for more days year-1, but southern systems that included large amounts of bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon L.) hay used the most MJ cow-1 for winter feed. Systems with high MJ cow-1 were vulnerable to shocks in energy prices. Reducing energy use and C emissions from cow- calf operations is possible, especially by reducing fertilizer and hay use, but would likely reduce productivity ha-1. Forages with high nitrogen use efficiency, locally adapted plants and animals, and replacement of hay with unfertilized dormant forage and CP supplementation could reduce energy use./Insumos derivados de los combustibles fósiles pueden incrementar el costo por unidad de tierra o trabajo dentro del sistema vaca-becerro pero a la vez pueden incrementar las preocupaciones financieras y medioambientales. Once sistemas de producción vaca-becerro de 9 regiones ecológicas de Estados Unidos ubicadas en Iowa, Dakota del Sur, Tennessee, y Texas se analizaron para determinar las cantidades de energía consumidas y el carbono (C) emitido debido al uso de combustibles fósiles (exceptuando las emisiones inherentes al suelo y al medioambiente), y a la vez determinar como el manejo y el medioambiente afecta estas cantidades. El total de energía y costo de carbón C, calculado por vaca o hectárea fue altamente relacionado (0.99). El uso de energía por vaca y hectárea tuvo una gran variación en los sistemas, fluctuando de 3 000 o 12 600 MJ vaca-1 año-1 y de 260 a 20 800 MJ ha-1 año-1. Mientas, la densidad animal incrementaba MJ vaca-1 también se incrementó a una tasa a la alza. Las diferencias en cantidad de fertilizante fueron las que provocaron una mayor variación en uso de energía. El uso de fertilizante permite una alta densidad de animales pero reduce la eficiencia energética del peso vivo comercializado. En comparación con el uso intensivo, sistemas de alta carga animal, sistemas de pastoreo basados en forrajes nativos o naturalizados usan una pequeña cantidad o no fertilizante en absoluto, pero a su vez usan más energía vaca-1 debido a la suplementación de proteína cruda, alambrado, y uso de vehículos. En todos los sistemas, la energía usada para producir alimentos durante el invierno fluctúo de un0% a 46% del total de la energía consumida. Los sistemas del norte del país usan mayores porcentajes del total de la energía consumida para proveer alimentación durante el invierno por mas días al año-1, mientras que los sistemas del sur que incluyen grandes cantidades de heno de pasto bermuda (Cynodon dactylon L.) usan la mayor cantidad de MJ vaca-1 para alimentación durante el invierno. Los sistemas con alto MJ vaca-1 fueron los más vulnerables a cambios bruscos en los precios de energía. La reducción del uso de energía y las emisiones de C en los sistemas de producción vaca-becerro es posible, especialmente mediante la reducción de fertilización y uso de heno, aunque podría ocasionar reducción en la productividad ha-1. Los forrajes con alta eficiencia en el uso de nitrógeno, así como plantas y animales adaptados a las condiciones locales, y el reemplazo de heno por forrajes no fertilizados y el uso de suplementación proteica podría reducir el uso de energía.The Rangeland Ecology & Management archives are made available by the Society for Range Management and the University of Arizona Libraries. Contact [email protected] for further information.Migrated from OJS platform August 202

Forage Performance in Crop—Livestock Systems Designed to Reduce Water Withdrawals From a Declining Aquifer

On the Ground • In the semiarid Texas High Plains, integrating crops with grazing systems could conserve irrigation water and increase perennial grassland. • We combined irrigated and nonirrigated exotic and native grasses with cotton production. • We grazed and hayed the grasses, harvested grass seed, and harvested cotton. • Strategically combining different forages, fertilizer,and water inputs can extend the grazing season, improve the quality of available forage, and provide a buffer against moderate drought. • Nonirrigated, seeded native grass mixtures can provide valuable grazing and decrease total water use of an integrated crop-livestock system.The Rangelands archives are made available by the Society for Range Management and the University of Arizona Libraries. Contact [email protected] for further information.Migrated from OJS platform March 202

Strategic Use of Native Species on Environmental Gradients Increases Diversity and Biomass Relative to Switchgrass Monocultures

Switchgrass (Panicum virgatum) monocultures are a leading feedstock choice for producing cellulosic biofuels. However, in natural stands, switchgrass is only dominant in a narrow ecological niche of the Tallgrass Prairie. This suggests that strategically selected monocultures or binary mixtures of species, adapted to particular ecological niches, might outyield switchgrass monocultures while increasing biodiversity at the field and landscape scales. To test this hypothesis, we planted monocultures of switchgrass and three alternative species at each of three landscape positions (shoulderslope, midslope, and footslope). Alternative species were also mixed with switchgrass such that they composed 33 or 67% of the total number of plants in each plot. Alternative species at each position included a C3 grass, a C4 grass, and a forb. Biomass data were collected in autumn during each of the two consecutive years following the establishment year. (see more in article

APEX 1203

APEX model executable, version 120