Properties of Synaptic Transmission from Rods and Cones in The Outer Plexiform Layer of The Vertebrate Retina

Photoreceptors are the first neurons in the visual system. They transduce changes in light intensity into graded changes in membrane potential that are then transformed into chemical signals by regulating the release of glutamate-filled synaptic vesicles. Rod and cone photoreceptors release glutamate continuously in darkness and release slows in light. To help track rapid changes in light intensity, photoreceptors are capable of both rapid exocytosis and rapid endocytosis of synaptic vesicles. Endocytosis is needed for recycling synaptic vesicles but also appears to be important for removing proteins and lipids from active zones to restore release site function after prior vesicle fusion. Synaptic exocytosis from vertebrate photoreceptors involves synaptic ribbons that cluster vesicles near the presynaptic membrane. We hypothesized that such clustering increases the likelihood that exocytosis at one ribbon release site may disrupt release at an adjacent site. Consistent with this, studies described in Chapter 2 showed that endocytosis is needed to rapidly restore release site competence at photoreceptor ribbon synapses. We combined optical and electrophysiological techniques to show that endocytosis is important for restoring late steps in the vesicle fusion process but does not appear to be needed for vesicles to dock successfully at the membrane. Release site clearance by endocytosis is thus essential for continuous release in photoreceptors. We explore mechanisms that contribute to efficient synaptic vesicle exocytosis and endocytosis in Chapter 3. Exocytosis and endocytosis of synaptic vesicles can be coupled in two general ways. In the full-collapse model, the vesicle membrane merges completely with the plasma membrane and so vesicles must be fully reconstructed before they can be retrieved by endocytosis. In the kiss-and-run model, a vesicle briefly contacts the plasma membrane through a small fusion pore that permits release of small molecules but the vesicle does not flatten into the plasma membrane. The vesicle with its complement of proteins is quickly recycled to the cytoplasm after closure of the fusion pore during kiss-and-run. Using a combination of techniques including total internal reflectance fluorescence microscopy (TIRFM), confocal microscopy, electron microscopy, and membrane capacitance measurements, we found that kiss-and-run exocytosis and endocytosis contributes to more than 50% of the release events in photoreceptors. In addition to speeding endocytosis, kiss-and-run fusion may limit disruption of release site structure during fusion, providing an efficient mechanism to facilitate sustained release. HCs not only receive excitatory feedforward signals from photoreceptors, but also send inhibitory feedback signals back to photoreceptors. At normal physiological membrane potentials in cones, inhibitory feedback from HCs to cones increases the activity of L-type voltage-gated Ca2+ channels producing inward feedback currents that increase the synaptic release of glutamate. In the final chapter of this thesis, we describe studies using paired whole cell recordings to determine if, in addition to Ca2+ currents, other currents also contribute to these inward feedback currents in cones. We found that feedback currents in cones involve a smaller than expected contribution from Ca2+-activated Cl- currents and a larger than expected contribution from Cl- currents associated with glutamate transporter activity in cones

Kiss-and-Run Is a Significant Contributor to Synaptic Exocytosis and Endocytosis in Photoreceptors.

Accompanying sustained release in darkness, rod and cone photoreceptors exhibit rapid endocytosis of synaptic vesicles. Membrane capacitance measurements indicated that rapid endocytosis retrieves at least 70% of the exocytotic membrane increase. One mechanism for rapid endocytosis is kiss-and-run fusion where vesicles briefly contact the plasma membrane through a small fusion pore. Release can also occur by full-collapse in which vesicles merge completely with the plasma membrane. We assessed relative contributions of full-collapse and kiss-and-run in salamander photoreceptors using optical techniques to measure endocytosis and exocytosis of large vs. small dye molecules. Incubation with small dyes (SR101, 1 nm; 3-kDa dextran-conjugated Texas Red, 2.3 nm) loaded rod and cone synaptic terminals much more readily than larger dyes (10-kDa Texas Red, 4.6 nm; 10-kDa pHrodo, 4.6 nm; 70-kDa Texas Red, 12 nm) consistent with significant uptake through 2.3-4.6 nm fusion pores. By using total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy (TIRFM) to image individual vesicles, when rods were incubated simultaneously with Texas Red and AlexaFluor-488 dyes conjugated to either 3-kDa or 10-kDa dextran, more vesicles loaded small molecules than large molecules. Using TIRFM to detect release by the disappearance of dye-loaded vesicles, we found that SR101 and 3-kDa Texas Red were released from individual vesicles more readily than 10-kDa and 70-kDa Texas Red. Although 10-kDa pHrodo was endocytosed poorly like other large dyes, the fraction of release events was similar to SR101 and 3-kDa Texas Red. We hypothesize that while 10-kDa pHrodo may not exit through a fusion pore, release of intravesicular protons can promote detection of fusion events by rapidly quenching fluorescence of this pH-sensitive dye. Assuming that large molecules can only be released by full-collapse whereas small molecules can be released by both modes, our results indicate that 50%-70% of release from rods involves kiss-and-run with 2.3-4.6 nm fusion pores. Rapid retrieval of vesicles by kiss-and-run may limit membrane disruption of release site function during ongoing release at photoreceptor ribbon synapses

Kiss-and-Run Is a Significant Contributor to Synaptic Exocytosis and Endocytosis in Photoreceptors

Accompanying sustained release in darkness, rod and cone photoreceptors exhibit rapid endocytosis of synaptic vesicles. Membrane capacitance measurements indicated that rapid endocytosis retrieves at least 70% of the exocytotic membrane increase. One mechanism for rapid endocytosis is kiss-and-run fusion where vesicles briefly contact the plasma membrane through a small fusion pore. Release can also occur by full-collapse in which vesicles merge completely with the plasma membrane. We assessed relative contributions of full-collapse and kiss-and-run in salamander photoreceptors using optical techniques to measure endocytosis and exocytosis of large vs. small dye molecules. Incubation with small dyes (SR101, 1 nm; 3-kDa dextran-conjugated Texas Red, 2.3 nm) loaded rod and cone synaptic terminals much more readily than larger dyes (10-kDa Texas Red, 4.6 nm; 10-kDa pHrodo, 4.6 nm; 70-kDa Texas Red, 12 nm) consistent with significant uptake through 2.3–4.6 nm fusion pores. By using total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy (TIRFM) to image individual vesicles, when rods were incubated simultaneously with Texas Red and AlexaFluor-488 dyes conjugated to either 3-kDa or 10-kDa dextran, more vesicles loaded small molecules than large molecules. Using TIRFM to detect release by the disappearance of dye-loaded vesicles, we found that SR101 and 3-kDa Texas Red were released from individual vesicles more readily than 10-kDa and 70-kDa Texas Red. Although 10-kDa pHrodo was endocytosed poorly like other large dyes, the fraction of release events was similar to SR101 and 3-kDa Texas Red. We hypothesize that while 10-kDa pHrodo may not exit through a fusion pore, release of intravesicular protons can promote detection of fusion events by rapidly quenching fluorescence of this pH-sensitive dye. Assuming that large molecules can only be released by full-collapse whereas small molecules can be released by both modes, our results indicate that 50%–70% of release from rods involves kiss-and-run with 2.3–4.6 nm fusion pores. Rapid retrieval of vesicles by kiss-and-run may limit membrane disruption of release site function during ongoing release at photoreceptor ribbon synapses

Auto-CsiNet: Scenario-customized Automatic Neural Network Architecture Generation for Massive MIMO CSI Feedback

Deep learning has revolutionized the design of the channel state information (CSI) feedback module in wireless communications. However, designing the optimal neural network (NN) architecture for CSI feedback can be a laborious and time-consuming process. Manual design can be prohibitively expensive for customizing NNs to different scenarios. This paper proposes using neural architecture search (NAS) to automate the generation of scenario-customized CSI feedback NN architectures, thereby maximizing the potential of deep learning in exclusive environments. By employing automated machine learning and gradient-descent-based NAS, an efficient and cost-effective architecture design process is achieved. The proposed approach leverages implicit scene knowledge, integrating it into the scenario customization process in a data-driven manner, and fully exploits the potential of deep learning for each specific scenario. To address the issue of excessive search, early stopping and elastic selection mechanisms are employed, enhancing the efficiency of the proposed scheme. The experimental results demonstrate that the automatically generated architecture, known as Auto-CsiNet, outperforms manually-designed models in both reconstruction performance (achieving approximately a 14% improvement) and complexity (reducing it by approximately 50%). Furthermore, the paper analyzes the impact of the scenario on the NN architecture and its capacity.Comment: 16 pages, 10 figures, 6 table

Elevated Pressure Increases Ca2+ Influx Through AMPA Receptors in Select Populations of Retinal Ganglion Cells

The predominate type of AMPA receptor expressed in the CNS is impermeable to Ca2+ (CI-AMPAR). However, some AMPA receptors are permeable to Ca2+ (CP-AMPAR) and play important roles in development, plasticity and disease. In the retina, ganglion cells (RGCs) are targets of disease including glaucoma and diabetic retinopathy, but there are many types of RGCs and not all types are targeted equally. In the present study, we sought to determine if there are differences in expression of AMPARs amongst RGC subtypes, and if these differences might contribute to differential vulnerability in a model of stress. Using cultured RGCs we first show that acute exposure to elevated pressure increased expression of Ca2+-permeable AMPA receptors (CP-AMPARs) in some, but not all classes of RGCs. When RGCs were sampled without regard to subtype, AMPA currents, measured using patch clamp recording, were blocked by the CP-AMPAR blocker PhTX-74 to a greater extent in pressure-treated RGCs vs. control. Furthermore, imaging experiments revealed an increase in Ca2+ influx during AMPA application in pressure-treated RGCs. However, examination of specific RGC subtypes using reporter lines revealed striking differences in both baseline AMPAR composition and modulation of this baseline composition by stress. Notably, ON alpha RGCs identified using the Opn4 mouse line and immunohistochemistry, had low expression of CP-AMPARs. Conversely, an ON-OFF direction selective RGC and putative OFF alpha RGC each expressed high levels of CP-AMPARs. These differences between RGC subtypes were also observed in RGCs from whole retina. Elevated pressure further lowered expression of CP-AMPARs in ON alpha RGCs, but raised expression in ON-OFF and OFF RGCs. Changes in CP-AMPAR expression following challenge with elevated pressure were correlated with RGC survival: ON alpha RGCs were unaffected by application of pressure, while the number of putative OFF alpha RGCs declined by approximately 50% following challenge with pressure. Differences in expression of CP-AMPARs between RGC subtypes may form the underpinnings for subtype-specific synaptic plasticity. Furthermore, the differential responses of these RGC subtypes to elevated pressure may contribute to the reported resistance of ON alpha, and susceptibility of OFF and ON-OFF RGCs to injury in models of glaucoma

Multi-task Learning-based CSI Feedback Design in Multiple Scenarios

For frequency division duplex systems, the essential downlink channel state information (CSI) feedback includes the links of compression, feedback, decompression and reconstruction to reduce the feedback overhead. One efficient CSI feedback method is the Auto-Encoder (AE) structure based on deep learning, yet facing problems in actual deployments, such as selecting the deployment mode when deploying in a cell with multiple complex scenarios. Rather than designing an AE network with huge complexity to deal with CSI of all scenarios, a more realistic mode is to divide the CSI dataset by region/scenario and use multiple relatively simple AE networks to handle subregions' CSI. However, both require high memory capacity for user equipment (UE) and are not suitable for low-level devices. In this paper, we propose a new user-friendly-designed framework based on the latter multi-tasking mode. Via Multi-Task Learning, our framework, Single-encoder-to-Multiple-decoders (S-to-M), designs the multiple independent AEs into a joint architecture: a shared encoder corresponds to multiple task-specific decoders. We also complete our framework with GateNet as a classifier to enable the base station autonomously select the right task-specific decoder corresponding to the subregion. Experiments on the simulating multi-scenario CSI dataset demonstrate our proposed S-to-M's advantages over the other benchmark modes, i.e., significantly reducing the model complexity and the UE's memory consumptionComment: 31 pages, 13 figures, 10 Table

Neo-sex chromosomes in the black muntjac recapitulate incipient evolution of mammalian sex chromosomes

The nascent neo-sex chromosomes of black muntjacs show that regulatory mutations could accelerate the degeneration of the Y chromosome and contribute to the further evolution of dosage compensation

Dislocation behaviors in nanotwinned diamond

Experimental results (Huang et al.) indicated that nanotwinned diamond (nt-diamond) has unprecedented hardness, whose physical mechanism has remained elusive. In this report, we categorize interaction modes between dislocations and twin planes in nt-diamond and calculate the associated reaction heat, activation energies, and barrier strength using molecular dynamics. On the basis of the Sachs model, twin thickness dependence of nt-diamond hardness is evaluated, which is in good agreement with the experimental data. We show that two factors contribute to the unusually high hardness of nt-diamond: high lattice frictional stress by the nature of carbon bonding in diamond and high athermal stress due to the Hall-Petch effect. Both factors stem from the low activation volumes and high activation energy for dislocation nucleation and propagation in diamond twin planes. This work provides new insights into hardening mechanisms in nt-diamond and will be helpful for developing new superhard materials in the future

Kinase D-interacting substrate of 220kDa is overexpressed in gastric cancer and associated with local invasion

Background: Kinase D-interacting substrate of 220kDa (Kidins220), also known as ankyrin repeat-rich membrane spanning protein (ARMS) is a transmembrane scaffold protein. It has been indicated in various malignancies including melanoma, glioma, neuroblastoma, prostate cancer, pancreatic cancer, and ovarian cancer. Materials and Methods: In the current study, Kidins220 expression was determined at transcript and protein levels. Kidins220 knockdown cell model was established to identify its role in cellular functions including cell cycle, proliferation, and invasion. The relevant cell signalling was analysed by protein array and TCGA gastric cancer cohort. Results: Kidins220 transcript was significantly increased in gastric tumors in comparison with adjacent normal tissues. More advanced tumors (TNM3 and TNM4) exhibited higher protein levels of Kidins220 compared with early-stage tumors (TNM1 and TNM2). Increased expression of Kidins220 in gastric cancer was associated with poorer overall survival. Loss of Kidins220 promoted cell invasion and adhesion of gastric cancer and correlated to EMT and MMP signalling. Knockdown of Kidins220 allowed more cells to enter into G2/M phase in gastric cancer and attribute to cell proliferation with corresponding alteration in cell cycle regulators. Conclusion: Our study identified an increased expression of Kidins220 in gastric cancer, which is associated with disease progression and poor prognosis. The disease progression in gastric cancer can be promoted by the loss of Kidins220 via EMT, MMP and cell cycle signalling

Is China’s Natural Gas Consumption Converging? Empirical Research Based on Spatial Econometrics

Excessive regional differences in energy consumption have led to inequality and energy poverty. It is essential to clarify the factors of energy consumption convergence to solve this problem. We use the spatial convergence model to analyze the convergence characteristics and conditions of China’s natural gas consumption from 2005 to 2017. The results of spatial absolute convergence show that there is absolute convergence of natural gas consumption in China, and the economic competition among provinces slightly hinders the convergence. Furthermore, based on the spatial Durbin model and the spatial conditional convergence model, we found that insufficient pipe network construction and the price difference caused by provincial borders are the main factors hindering the flow of natural gas, which also restricts the spatial convergence of natural gas consumption. The development of the tertiary industry and the improvement of purchasing power will help accelerate the convergence of natural gas consumption. This research not only evaluates the spatial convergence of China’s natural gas consumption for the first time, but also provides an analytical idea for formulating policies to eliminate poverty in energy consumption