Dual-processing altruism

Altruism refers to an other-benefiting behavior that is costly but bears no direct profit to oneself. At least three different forms can be distinguished: help giving, altruistic punishment, and moral courage. We investigated the differential impact of two thinking modes, intuitive (System 1) and rational (System 2), on these three altruistic behaviors. Situational (state-related) thinking style was manipulated via experimental instructions and generally preferred thinking style (trait-related) was assessed via questionnaires. We found that of the subjectively preferred thinking styles (trait), faith in intuition (System 1) promoted sharing and altruistic punishment, whereas need for cognition (System 2) promoted volunteering in a situation that required moral courage. By contrast, we did not find a significant effect of situational thinking style (state) on any of the altruistic behaviors, although manipulation checks were positive. Results elucidate the affective-motivational underpinnings of different types of altruistic behaviors

Zehn Bewusstseinsmodelle, die keine sind

Ten models of consciousness are discussed. The models are proposed by individuals who do not seem to understand “the hard problem of phenomenal consciousness”, presumably because they have no qualia themselves. As the Zombie’s proposals are dismissed, the quality of their comments and contributions rises. It is concluded that no premature solution to the hard problem should be proposed at this point; instead it is suggested that the problem must first be appreciated to full extent by scientists and students of all faculties dealing with information processing in the human brain. Ultimately, the question is why the brain, when in a particular state, experiences its own activity qualitatively. The answer to that question will probably expand the current ontology of physics.Dix modèles de conscience sont discutés. Les modèles en question sont proposés par des individus ne semblant pas comprendre « le problème difficile de la conscience phénoménale », vraisemblablement parce qu’ils n’ont pas de qualia eux-mêmes. Alors que les demandes des Zombies sont rejetées, la qualité de leurs commentaires et de leurs contributions augmente. La conclusion est qu’aucune solution précoce ne devrait être proposée à ce stade. Plutôt, il est suggéré que le problème devrait d’abord être pleinement examiné par les scientifiques et les étudiants de toutes les universités concernées par le traitement de l’information dans le cerveau humain. Enfin, reste la question pourquoi le cerveau, lorsqu’il est dans un état particulier, vit sa propre activité de façon qualitative. La réponse à cette question contribuera probablement au développement de l’actuelle ontologie de la physique.In diesem Beitrag werden zehn Bewusstseinsmodelle diskutiert. Vorgeschlagen werden sie von Individuen, die offensichtlich das „schwierige Problem des phänomenalen Bewusstseins” nicht verstehen, vielleicht aus Ermangelung an eigener Qualia. Die Vorschläge werden einer nach dem anderen verworfen; unterdessen steigt die Qualität der Kommentare. Die Schlussfolgerung aus der Diskussion ist, dass momentan keine endgültige Lösung für das Problem in Sicht ist. Stattdessen wird angeregt, das Problem zunächst im vollen Umfang Wissenschaftlern und Studenten aller Fakultäten näher zu bringen, die sich mit Informationsverarbeitung im menschlichen Gehirn befassen. Die entscheidende Frage ist letztlich, warum das in einem bestimmten physikalischen Zustand befindliche Gehirn seine eigene Aktivität qualitativ erlebt. Die erfolgreiche Beantwortung dieser Frage erfordert vermutlich die Erweiterung der Ontologie der Physik

Sentence context induces lexical bias in audiovisual speech perception

The present study investigated whether semantic context enhances accuracy of word perception or merely induces a bias to perceive any speech input as a contextually appropriate word. Audiovisual speech tokens that were typically perceived as coherent words were com-pared with dubbed comparison stimuli that were not perceived as coherent words, either be-cause they did not allow for the fusion of the auditory and visual speech inputs (Experiment 1), or because successful fusion resulted in a lexically inappropriate phoneme (Experiment 2). These dubbed speech tokens were presented as endings of semantically congruent versus in-congruent sentences as subjects were asked to rate their lexical status (i.e., the word-likeness of the tokens). Results showed that subjects rendered enhanced lexicality ratings in semanti-cally congruent conditions relative to incongruent conditions, whether or not the evaluated token was perceived as a word, and whether or not it allowed for audiovisual fusion. This reflects an effect of sentence context on lexical bias, not sensitivity (i.e., accuracy). Results speak against a clear distinction between lexical and semantic levels of analysis and are there-fore inconsistent with models locating word recognition prior to semantic activation

The role of anxiety in decision-making

Over the past decade, many studies have shown that individuals with reduced sensitivity for risk due to traumatic brain injury in orbital parts of the prefrontal cortex tend to ignore the long term outcomes of their behavioral actions (the same holds true for individuals with socio-/psychopathy). Instead, these individuals merely base decisions on anticipated immediate gains, similar to impulsive choice in children. The Iowa gambling task has been designed specifically to measure this behavioral tendency. We used this task to investigate a state opposite to that of impulsiveness and carelessness, namely enhanced anxiety and risk intolerance. We expected beneficial effects on decision-making, especially since high anxiety in both healthy populations and patients with anxiety disorders has been linked with enhanced activation of orbitofrontal cortex. Our most important finding is that intolerance towards uncertainty is indeed positively correlated with overall performance on the Iowa gambling task in a sample of adults as well as with anxiety in a sample of children. Results illustrate the protective functions of anxiety and risk aversion, and their positive long-term effects on decision-making. These motives seem to enable individuals to better consider future consequences of their actions, and to switch from previously reinforced behaviors to alternative behaviors when contingencies change

Countries with Higher Levels of Gender Equality Show Larger National Sex Differences in Mathematics Anxiety and Relatively Lower Parental Mathematics Valuation for Girls.

Despite international advancements in gender equality across a variety of societal domains, the underrepresentation of girls and women in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) related fields persists. In this study, we explored the possibility that the sex difference in mathematics anxiety contributes to this disparity. More specifically, we tested a number of predictions from the prominent gender stratification model, which is the leading psychological theory of cross-national patterns of sex differences in mathematics anxiety and performance. To this end, we analyzed data from 761,655 15-year old students across 68 nations who participated in the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA). Most importantly and contra predictions, we showed that economically developed and more gender equal countries have a lower overall level of mathematics anxiety, and yet a larger national sex difference in mathematics anxiety relative to less developed countries. Further, although relatively more mothers work in STEM fields in more developed countries, these parents valued, on average, mathematical competence more in their sons than their daughters. The proportion of mothers working in STEM was unrelated to sex differences in mathematics anxiety or performance. We propose that the gender stratification model fails to account for these national patterns and that an alternative model is needed. In the discussion, we suggest how an interaction between socio-cultural values and sex-specific psychological traits can better explain these patterns. We also discuss implications for policies aiming to increase girls' STEM participation

Facial Shape or Expression?

Do naive observers communicate about a male's aggressive and dominant character using facial shape as a signal, specifically, facial width in edited photographs? We attempted to show that they don't, and that they instead use emotional expressions as cue to character trait. We were, however, not entirely successful. Although the expression signal was much more effective, there was something about facial shape that was used by the senders and understood above chance level by the recipients

Sentence context induces lexical bias in audiovisual speech perception

The present study investigated whether semantic context enhances accuracy of word perception or merely induces a bias to perceive any speech input as a contextually appropriate word. Audiovisual speech tokens that were typically perceived as coherent words were com-pared with dubbed comparison stimuli that were not perceived as coherent words, either be-cause they did not allow for the fusion of the auditory and visual speech inputs (Experiment 1), or because successful fusion resulted in a lexically inappropriate phoneme (Experiment 2). These dubbed speech tokens were presented as endings of semantically congruent versus in-congruent sentences as subjects were asked to rate their lexical status (i.e., the word-likeness of the tokens). Results showed that subjects rendered enhanced lexicality ratings in semanti-cally congruent conditions relative to incongruent conditions, whether or not the evaluated token was perceived as a word, and whether or not it allowed for audiovisual fusion. This reflects an effect of sentence context on lexical bias, not sensitivity (i.e., accuracy). Results speak against a clear distinction between lexical and semantic levels of analysis and are there-fore inconsistent with models locating word recognition prior to semantic activation