On the origin of spaces: morphometric foundations of urban form evolution

The modern discipline of urban morphology gives us a ground for the comparative analysis of cities, which increasingly includes specific quantitative elements. In this paper, we make a further step forward towards the definition of a general method for the classification of urban form. We draw from morphometrics and taxonomy in life sciences to propose such method, which we name ‘urban morphometrics’. We then test it on a unit of the urban landscape named ‘Sanctuary Area’ (SA), explored in 45 cities whose origins span four historic time periods: Historic (medieval), Industrial (19th century), New Towns (post-WWII, high-rise) and Sprawl (post-WWII, low-rise). We describe each SA through 207 physical dimensions and then use these to discover features that discriminate them among the four temporal groups. Nine dimensions emerge as sufficient to correctly classify 90% of the urban settings by their historic origins. These nine attributes largely identify an area's ‘visible identity’ as reflected by three characteristics: (1) block perimeterness, or the way buildings define the street-edge; (2) building coverage, or the way buildings cover the land and (3) regular plot coverage, or the extent to which blocks are made of plots that have main access from a street. Hierarchical cluster analysis utilising only the nine key variables nearly perfectly clusters each SA according to its historic origin; moreover, the resulting dendrogram shows, just after WWII, the first ‘bifurcation’ of urban history, with the emergence of the modern city as a new ‘species’ of urban form. With ‘urban morphometrics’ we hope to extend urban morphological research and contribute to understanding the way cities evolve

Defining public open spaces: an investigation framework to inform planning and design decision-making processes

Typomorphological analysis has been used to study building types, but it is seldom applied to open spaces. This paper argues that the same systematic and rigorous approach can be applied to define public open spaces. It explores the potential of the application of a systematic analysis of types and forms to define urban landscapes. Drawing on existing literature, this paper identifies specific attributes related to urban landscape elements including formal and spatial aspects. This paper highlights the potential of open space networks to respond to the contemporary challenges facing urban designers working to create better places to live in. This paper contributes to the field of design research through the development of a method of survey and analysis to inform design decision-making processes. Its significance lies in proposing a comprehensive framework to contribute to a more detailed definition of urban landscape character and inform the development of sustainable urban strategies

Strengthening the morphological study of informal settlements

Methods of articulating the morphological structure of slums can have considerable potential in better planning for site-specific design or policy responses for these areas in the contemporary city. Although urban morphology traditionally studies landscapes as stratified residues with distinct divisions between lot and boundary, built and unbuilt, the authors find these definitions insufficient to address the complexity of slum morphology. Through this article, the authors’ identify that morphological analysis of informal settlements needs to be sensitive to the dynamics and the absence (or blurring) of physical boundaries. By analyzing the spatial impact of social, economic, and political factors, situational and site factors, building typologies, and configurations of circulation space, an attempt to articulate the morphological structure of slums is made. Aiming to overcome the current polarization in the literature between the formal and informal city, this article adds to the ongoing research on the study of challenges within contemporary cities, by providing new methodologies for studying the morphology of slum urbanization and shaping planning practice

A temporally cyclic growth model of urban spatial morphology in China: evidence from Kunming Metropolis

Rapid urbanization and complexity of political-economic transition in China has brought about continuous and remarkable changes of urban morphology over the past decades, which were driven by a mixture of spatial, social-economic and institutional forces. Understanding such urban morphological evolution requires new mixed evidences and holistic perspectives. In this paper, it is argued that two dominant types of urban growth in China: low-density expansion and high-density infill might be driven by different forces at different stages. To interpret the processes of urban development, two easy-to-understand morphological indicators: expansion-induced investment density index” (EID) and “infill-induced investment density index” (IID) are defined to measure the investment density per unit of developed land and used to compare the morphological changes between different phases in a long period by integrating spatial and socio-economic data. The temporal variation of these indicators suggests a cyclic growth model (CGM), which means the periodic switch between low density expansion and high-density infill. Using Kunming metropolis as a case study, this paper has confirmed that its urban morphological evolution from 1950-2014 was periodically and reciprocally driven by a set of vis-à-vis dualistic dynamics, in which low-density expansion is led by pro-growth infrastructure oriented public investment, while the high-density infill is activated by collective and rational actions of individual enterprises and their economic behaviors. It is concluded that the confirmed CGM model, together with two morphological indicators, offers a new holistic perspective and method to easily and integrally interpret urban morphological evolution and accordingly has potential theoretical implications for reasonably understanding the urbanisation in China

Fringe belts and socioeconomic change in China

The fringe-belt concept, though much studied by urban morphologists in the West, has been largely uninvestigated in the markedly different cultural environments of Eastern Asia. After an outline of the concept and considerations relating to its investigation in China, a fringe-belt study is carried out in the Chinese city of Pingyao. Comparisons are made with the findings of previous fringe-belt studies. The major fringe belt that has developed in Pingyao has features characteristic of fringe belts in the West but others that reflect a succession of different policies by authoritarian Chinese governments in the course of the twentieth century. The need for thorough morphological investigations as a basis for sound conservation planning is highlighted.

Fringe Belts

This chapter is principally concerned with Jeremy Whitehand’s contribution to the study of urban fringe belts. However, this consideration will initially be set in a broader context relating to the general field of urban morphology as an object of study. This is because the development of urban morphology as an academic endeavour, and along with it, the study of fringe belts, has not been a straightforward linear progression. Indeed, there have been periods when, in the Anglophone world at least, the subject appeared to be on the verge of extinction. The fact that this has not occurred is in no small measure due to the efforts of JWR Whitehand. The essay will then proceed to an assessment of the major contributions made by Whitehand in the general area of fringe-belt studies. We shall then conclude with a personal assessment of Whitehand’s overall influence and academic characteristics, derived mainly, although not exclusively, from his contributions to that specific branch of urban morphology

Fringe belts and the recycling of urban land: an academic concept and planning practice

It has been well established by urban morphologists that fringe-belt development is an integral part of the historico-geographical development of cities, but such development has attracted little attention from planners. Despite the physical distinctiveness of Birmingham's Edwardian fringe belt, decisionmaking about its development is largely site-by-site. Its survival as a concentric zone with a high incidence of green space partly reflects the fact that the character and occupation of the individual sites of which it is composed have become deeply rooted in the mental maps of those able to influence change. Awareness of the fringe belt as an entity is rare: few landowners, developers, or planners see individual sites as integrated parts of the historical and ecological development of the city as a whole. Initially, pressure to redevelop fringe-belt plots has come largely from landowners. The proposed changes are often at variance with the predilections of local planners. Planners have a sectional perception, strongly related to the land use of cities. For developers, an interest in sites other than the one to which their planning application relates is almost entirely limited to the effects that adjacent sites might have on the viability of their proposal. The integrative quality of the fringe-belt concept is an important aspect of its potential as a citywide planning construct.