The native bee fauna of the Palouse Prairie (Hymenoptera: Apoidea)

While synoptic collections provide data on the range and general composition of the North American bee fauna, bee communities associated with specific habitats are largely uncharacterized.  This report describes the community of native bees currently found in remnant fragments of the Palouse Prairie of northern Idaho and southeastern Washington State.  Native bees were collected using standardized collection techniques including blue vane traps, colored pan traps and aerial netting.  More than 13,000 individuals were collected, representing at least 174 species and 36 morphospecies in 29 genera.  These data provide the most thorough characterization of the bee fauna of this vulnerable ecosystem, as well as community level information on bee species of unknown conservation status.  These results are relevant to regional conservation efforts and, more broadly, are representative of conditions in fragmented grasslands surrounded by intense agriculture, a common global land use pattern of conservation concern

Substantial Red Wolf Genetic Ancestry Persists in Wild Canids of Southwestern Louisiana

Concerns over red wolf (Canis rufus) extinction caused by hybridization with coyotes (C. latrans) led to the capture and removal of remnant wild wolves from southwestern Louisiana and southeastern Texas, United States, during the 1970s. Here we show that despite decades of unmitigated hybridization, and declaration of endangered red wolves as functionally extinct in the wild, red wolf mitochondrial or nuclear DNA ancestry persists in ∼55% of contemporary wild canids sampled in southwestern Louisiana. Surprisingly, one individual had 78–100% red wolf ancestry, which is within the range for 75% red wolf, red wolf backcross, or putative red wolf, depending on estimation method. Our findings bolster support for designation of red wolves as a distinct species, demonstrate a critical need for the United States Government to consider adopting an existing but unimplemented hybrid policy, and suggest that immediate reassessment of canid management and taxonomic designation in southwestern Louisiana may be warranted

Evaluating the Reliability of Field Identification and Morphometric Classifications for Carnivore Scats Confirmed with Genetic Analysis

Scat surveys are commonly used to monitor carnivore populations. Scats of sympatric carnivores can be difficult to differentiate and field-based identification can be misleading. We evaluated the success of field-based species identification for scats of 2 sympatric carnivores—coyotes (Canis latrans) and kit foxes (Vulpes macrotis). We conducted scat surveys in the Great Basin desert of Utah, USA, during the winter and summer of 2013, and we detected 1,680 carnivore scats. We classified scats based on field identification, recorded morphometricmeasurements, and collected fecalDNA samples for molecular species identification. We subsequently evaluated the classification success of field identification and the predictive power of 2 nonparametric classification techniques—k-nearest neighbors and classification trees—based on scat measurements. Overall, 12.2% of scats were misclassified by field identification, but misclassifications were not equitable between species. Only 7.1% of the scats identified as coyote with field identification were misclassified, compared with 22.9% of scats identified as kit fox. Results from both k-nearest neighbor and classification-tree analyses suggest that morphometric measurements provided an objective alternative to field identification that improved classification of rarer species. Overall misclassification rates for k-nearest neighbor and classification-tree analyses were 11.7% and 7.5%, respectively. Using classification trees, misclassification was reduced for kit foxes (8.5%) and remained similar for coyotes (7.2%), relative to field identification. Although molecular techniques provide unambiguous species identification, classification approaches may offer a cost-effective alternative. We recommend that monitoring programs employing scat surveys utilize molecular species identification to develop training data sets and evaluate the accuracy of field based and statistical classification approaches

Evaluating the Reliability of Field Identification and Morphometric Classifications for Carnivore Scats Confirmed with Genetic Analysis

Scat surveys are commonly used to monitor carnivore populations. Scats of sympatric carnivores can be difficult to differentiate and field-based identification can be misleading. We evaluated the success of field-based species identification for scats of 2 sympatric carnivores—coyotes (Canis latrans) and kit foxes (Vulpes macrotis). We conducted scat surveys in the Great Basin desert of Utah, USA, during the winter and summer of 2013, and we detected 1,680 carnivore scats. We classified scats based on field identification, recorded morphometricmeasurements, and collected fecalDNA samples for molecular species identification. We subsequently evaluated the classification success of field identification and the predictive power of 2 nonparametric classification techniques—k-nearest neighbors and classification trees—based on scat measurements. Overall, 12.2% of scats were misclassified by field identification, but misclassifications were not equitable between species. Only 7.1% of the scats identified as coyote with field identification were misclassified, compared with 22.9% of scats identified as kit fox. Results from both k-nearest neighbor and classification-tree analyses suggest that morphometric measurements provided an objective alternative to field identification that improved classification of rarer species. Overall misclassification rates for k-nearest neighbor and classification-tree analyses were 11.7% and 7.5%, respectively. Using classification trees, misclassification was reduced for kit foxes (8.5%) and remained similar for coyotes (7.2%), relative to field identification. Although molecular techniques provide unambiguous species identification, classification approaches may offer a cost-effective alternative. We recommend that monitoring programs employing scat surveys utilize molecular species identification to develop training data sets and evaluate the accuracy of field based and statistical classification approaches

Evaluating the Genetic Distinctiveness of the Salmon River Drainage Bighorn Sheep and their Connectivity to Neighboring Populations

Rocky mountain bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis canadensis) were historically abundant in Idaho, but currently population levels remain low. Bighorn Sheep (BHS) in the Salmon River drainage are considered one of Idaho’s only remaining native sheep populations because they were never completely extirpated from their historic range. In addition, there has been little or no genetic influence via translocation of sheep from outside the drainage potentially making this BHS population genetically unique to Idaho. Contrastingly, surrounding populations to the west and east were extirpated or severely reduced and have subsequently been reintroduced or heavily augmented through use of translocations from Canada and several western states. There is presumably some degree of population connectivity between the Salmon River sheep and surrounding areas but to date, this has not been investigated using genetic data. To assess the genetic distinctiveness of Salmon River bighorns and their connectivity to other populations, we have collected genetic data from 15 nuclear DNA microsatellite loci for 256 BHS using blood and horn shaving samples across a 33,786-km2 study area in central Idaho. The number of BHS genetic groups will be determined using Bayesian clustering algorithms, and the degree of connectivity between populations will be examined using Fst and assignment tests. Future directions include comparing radio-location data and genetic information to investigate structure/connectivity and potential for disease transmission of SRD bighorns as well as examining relationship between lamb productivity/ survival and genetic diversity/gene flow

Evaluating Otter Reintroduction Outcomes Using Genetic Spatial Capture-Recapture Modified for Dendritic Networks

Monitoring the demographics and genetics of reintroduced populations is critical to evaluating reintroduction success, but species ecology and the landscapes that they inhabit often present challenges for accurate assessments. If suitable habitats are restricted to hierarchical dendritic networks, such as river systems, animal movements are typically constrained and may violate assumptions of methods commonly used to estimate demographic parameters. Using genetic detection data collected via fecal sampling at latrines, we demonstrate applicability of the spatial capture–recapture (SCR) network distance function for estimating the size and density of a recently reintroduced North American river otter (Lontra canadensis) population in the Upper Rio Grande River dendritic network in the southwestern United States, and we also evaluated the genetic outcomes of using a small founder group (n = 33 otters) for reintroduction. Estimated population density was 0.23–0.28 otter/km, or 1 otter/3.57–4.35 km, with weak evidence of density increasing with northerly latitude (β = 0.33). Estimated population size was 83–104 total otters in 359 km of riverine dendritic network, which corresponded to average annual exponential population growth of 1.12–1.15/year since reintroduction. Growth was ≥40% lower than most reintroduced river otter populations and strong evidence of a founder effect existed 8–10 years post-reintroduction, including 13–21% genetic diversity loss, 84%–87% genetic effective population size decline, and rapid divergence from the source population (FST accumulation = 0.06/generation). Consequently, genetic restoration via translocation of additional otters from other populations may be necessary to mitigate deleterious genetic effects in this small, isolated population. Combined with non-invasive genetic sampling, the SCR network distance approach is likely widely applicable to demogenetic assessments of both reintroduced and established populations of multiple mustelid species that inhabit aquatic dendritic networks, many of which are regionally or globally imperiled and may warrant reintroduction or augmentation efforts

Developing a Monitoring Framework to Estimate Wolf Distribution and Abundance in Southwest Alberta

Gray wolf (Canis lupus) populations are difficult to monitor because wolves can be elusive and occur in low densities.  Traditional radiotelemetry-based monitoring methods have limited application when turnover is high within the wolf population and resources to maintain long-term collaring programs are limited.  We worked collaboratively with Alberta Environmental Sustainable Resource Development between 2012 and 2014 to develop techniques for monitoring gray wolf populations in the absence of radiotelemetry in southwest Alberta.  We surveyed potential rendezvous sites and collected DNA samples from wolf scats for genetic analysis and surveyed hunters for wolf sightings made during the hunting seasons. We fit false-positive occupancy models to annual detection data derived from genetic results and hunter surveys with Program PRESENCE.  We found percent forest cover and human density positively influenced pack occupancy whereas detection probabilities varied by survey method, sampling effort, and sampling season.  The model predicted wolf pack occupancy well and distribution and abundance estimates were consistent with agency predictions.  While developing the monitoring framework, questions arose regarding pack turnover and population growth under widespread human harvest.  Previous studies have focused on population recovery following wolf control actions but little emphasis is put on populations that exist under regular harvest.  We will use genetic data to determine how immigration contributes to wolf population trends under a long-term harvest regime and tie this into pack occupancy through colonization and local extinction probabilities.  This will expand the application of our occupancy model and will further clarify how wolf populations respond to long-term regulated harvest

Evidence for \u3cem\u3eBombus Occidentalis\u3c/em\u3e (Hymenoptera: Apidae) Populations in the Olympic Peninsula, the Palouse Prairie, and Forests of Northern Idaho

Since the mid-1990s, Bombus occidentalis (Green) has declined from being one of the most common to one of the rarest bumble bee species in the Pacific Northwest of the United States. Although its conservation status is unresolved, a petition to list this species as endangered or threatened was recently submitted to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. To shed light on the conservation situation and inform the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service decision, we report on the detection and abundance of B. occidentalis following bumble bee collection between 2012 and 2014 across the Pacific Northwest. Collection occurred from the San Juan Islands and Olympic peninsula east to northern Idaho and northeastern Oregon, excluding the arid region in central Washington. B. occidentalis was observed at 23 collection sites out of a total of 234. With the exception of three sites on the Olympic peninsula, all of these were in the southeastern portion of the collection range

Immigration as a Compensatory Mechanism to Offset Harvest Mortality in Harvested Wolf Populations

In less than a decade the U.S. Northern Rocky Mountain gray wolf (Canis lupus) population has experienced large shifts in management practices, from federal protection under the Endangered Species Act to increasingly liberal hunting and trapping seasons in many portions of their range after delisting.  As a result, there is interest in how current wolf management practices will affect this population over time.  Recent research suggests wolf pup recruitment in central Idaho has declined since harvest was initiated, yet wolf densities appear stable in many regions of the state, suggesting other compensatory mechanisms are offsetting the effects of harvest mortality.  Our objective was to evaluate immigration as a compensatory mechanism that may offset the effects of harvest mortality and facilitate population persistence in a heavily harvested wolf population.  Using noninvasively sampled DNA we identified dispersers into two focal study areas in central Idaho prior to and after harvest was initiated.  We measured genetic relatedness within and among wolf packs using three different metrics to assess how immigration has changed with changing management practices.  Our results suggest that at current harvest rates immigration is not acting as a compensatory mechanism to offset the effects of harvest mortality.  Local dispersal may be unaffected by harvest pressure whereas harvest has negative effects on long-distance dispersal.  Our research can help managers consider the effects of immigration on local wolf populations when making harvest management decisions

Genetic and spatial structure within a swift fox population

1. We incorporated spatial data on swift foxes (Vulpes velox) with genetic analysis to assess the influence of relatedness between individuals on their social and spatial ecology. We recorded the space use patterns of 188 radio-collared swift foxes in southeastern Colorado from January 1997 to December 2000. One hundred and sixty-seven foxes were also genotyped at 11 microsatellite DNA loci and the degree of relatedness between individuals was estimated. 2. We described the genetic structure of the population by examining the relatedness of neighbors and the relationship between the spatial and genetic distance of all individuals. We found that close kin appeared to cluster within the population. Neighbors were significantly more related (mean R= 0.089 ± 0.01) than non-neighbors (mean R = 0.003 ± 0.01; randomization test, P \u3c 0.0002). Female clusters were more extensive than male clusters. 3. The degree of genetic relatedness among foxes was useful in explaining why foxes tolerated encroachment of their home ranges by neighbors; the more closely related neighbors were, the more home-range overlap they tolerated (Mantel test, P = 0.0004). Foxes did not appear to orientate their home ranges to avoid neighbors and home ranges overlapped by as much as 54.77% (x = 14.13% ± 0.41). Neighbors also occasionally engaged in concurrent den sharing. 4. Relatedness influenced the likelihood that an individual would inherit a newly vacated home range, with a mean relatedness of range inheritors to previous owners of 0.333 ±&#;0.074. Thus, the genetic structure of the population and interactions between kin were interrelated to space-use patterns and social ecology of the swift fox