Direct and Intermediated Marketing of Local Foods in the United States

This study uses nationally representative data on the marketing of local foods to assess the relative scale of local food marketing channels. This research documents that sales through intermediated marketing channels, such as farmers’ sales to local grocers and restaurants, account for a large portion of all local food sales. Small and medium-sized farms dominate local foods sales marketed exclusively through direct-to-consumer channels (foods sold at roadside stands or farmers’ markets, for example) while large farms dominate local food sales marketed exclusively through intermediated channels. Farmers marketing food locally are most prominent in the Northeast and the West Coast regions and areas close to densely populated urban markets. Climate and topography favoring the production of fruits and vegetables, proximity to and neighboring farm participation in farmers’ markets, and good transportation and information access are found to be associated with higher levels of direct-to-consumer sales.Local foods, direct marketing channels, direct sales, intermediated sales Acknowledgments: The, Agricultural and Food Policy, Marketing,

Fish Passage and Hydropower: Investigating Resource Agency Decision-making During the FERC Hydropower Relicensing Process

Hydropower dams represent a significant challenge for the successful migration of sea-run fish, many species of which are in decline. Most hydropower dams in the United States are regulated by the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC), an independent federal agency responsible for granting 30 to 50-year licenses to projects for their continued operation. Licenses typically include conditions for the conservation of sea-run fish such as fish passage construction, operational changes, monitoring of effectiveness, and other mitigative conditions. While FERC remains the primary authority in licensing, the current regulatory framework stipulates input from other federal and state resource and regulatory agencies, many working from differing timeframes, varying levels of authority, and within the bounds of a complex legal system. Outside of the relicensing process, modifications and improvements are not required unless prescribed in the original license or prompted by legal action (e.g., the listing of new species under the ESA). In effect, the relicensing process presents the most effective opportunity for agencies to influence dam operations. Due to accelerated construction of hydropower dams in the 1980s, many of the projects in Maine will require relicensing within the next decade requiring input from an array of federal and state agencies. When negotiating hydropower operations, agencies must make timely decisions and examine tradeoffs based on their respective and often competing authorities, values, and objectives. Using the Kennebec and Penobscot Rivers in Maine as a model system, the overall goal of this research is to examine the hydropower relicensing process to: 1) identify and describe the role and authority of resource agencies during dam relicensing, 2) determine the factors that may affect the design and implementation of fish passage measures, and 3) highlight management and policy implications that may be used to inform fish passage decisions and future relicensing efforts. This research provides the historical context for fish passage in the study area and describes hydropower regulation. The first chapter uses content analysis of relicensing documents readily available on the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) eLibrary to identify the main factors that influence fish passage decision-making and describe patterns in agency engagement during relicensing. Our results indicate an overall increase in concern for fish passage over time with mitigation measures focused almost exclusively on Atlantic salmon and American eel. Agency engagement and the use of regulatory authority increased after the 1900s, especially with regards to the use of Water Quality Certification conditions as a tool for addressing fish passage. Overall, hydropower projects were found to differ along a spatial gradient with coastal projects correlated strongly to fish passage language and input from the Maine Department of Marine Resources (MDMR), United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS), and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and inland projects to input from the Maine Department of Inland Fisheries and Wildlife (MDIFW). Despite stated interest in basin-scale planning, policies in support of it, and continued improvement, implementation has been slow at best. Our results suggest there remain significant opportunities to spatially integrate the FERC process. The second chapter investigates the concept of “best available science” (BAS) as it applies to the relicensing decision process. Agency regulators are tasked with using the BAS to make informed decisions about hydropower operations and management. Although embraced as the standard, best available science is not well-defined and is inconsistently applied. Citation analysis and an online survey of regulatory and resource agency staff were used to identify the informational sources used in relicensing and assess agency perceptions of BAS. Analysis of relicensing documents (n=62) demonstrates that FERC and licensee documents (i.e., documents produced by the individual or organization that was granted the license) are highly similar in citation composition. NOAA reports typically cite more sources and are three times more likely to cite peer-reviewed literature than FERC and licensee documents. Survey data reveals that federal and state agency respondents (n=49) rate peer-reviewed literature highly in terms of BAS, followed by university (e.g., theses), agency (e.g., agency grey literature), and expert sources (e.g., guidance from experts), while industry (e.g., consultant reports) and community (e.g., comments and personal interactions) sources rate poorly. Overall, there is low agreement among respondents with regards to BAS rankings of informational sources. The reported differences in information use may be linked to disparities in access to certain sources, particularly peer-reviewed literature. A common concern expressed by agency staff is the lack of applied technical information for all aspects of dam operations. One such disparity relates to the difficulty in assessing downstream passage for out-migrating juvenile fish. The final chapter addresses this knowledge gap by describing the development of a novel buoyancy conversion (BC) tag that may be used to facilitate fish recapture for passage assessments. The BC tag uses low-cost materials, does not significantly hinder fish movement, and has a delayed deployment. This chapter provides a detailed description of the BC tag and describes the process used to optimize the tag for a range of fish sizes, specifically for juvenile river herring. This work is intended for the public domain and is meant to be highly adaptable for use with many fish species and life stages

Researching Islamic Law: an introduction

This article by Sarah Spells from the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, focuses on the sources of Islamic law and provides a simple introduction to finding and researching this area, with suggestions of useful and notable resources

Please Hold the Line : Including Readiness to Use as a Predictor of M-Commerce Services Adoption by Consumers in Germany

This research paper reports the results of a study of M-commerce services adoption in Germany. A quota sample of two hundred respondents was taken in Berlin using a face-to-face questionnaire. Data regarding the use or intention to use M-commerce services, factors that influenced or might influence their adoption of the services, as well as demographic characteristics were collected. The data is analyzed using the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) and Structural Equation Modelling (SEM). Further theoretical development is conducted using the broad approach taken by Venkatesh et al. (2003) in the development of the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT): a focus on constructs that can readily be measured. The result is the Simplified Theory of Technology Acceptance (STAT). This model is unique in that it is parsimonious and yet achieves a high degree of predictive power. The model also includes a new construct called Readiness to Use. This construct was suggested by the SEM analysis and is found to be a useful addition to conceptualization and modelling of the adoption of new information technologies in a consumer context

Unequal expenditure switching: Evidence from Switzerland

What are the unequal effects of changes in consumer prices on the cost of living? In the context of changes in import prices (driven by, e.g., changes in trade costs or exchange rates), most analyses focus on variation across households in initial expenditure shares on imported goods. However, the unequal welfare effects of non-marginal foreign price changes also depend on differences in how consumers substitute between imported and domestic goods, on which there is scant evidence. Using data from Switzerland surrounding the 2015 appreciation of the Swiss franc, we provide evidence that lower-income households have higher price elasticities. We quantify the contribution of heterogeneous elasticities for the unequal welfare effects of observed price changes between 2014–15 and for counterfactual shocks to the mean and dispersion of import price changes

Homogeneous and heterogeneous multiple representations in equation‐solving problems: An eye‐tracking study

Multiple external representations (MERs) play an important role in the learning field of mathematics. Whereas the cognitive theory of multimedia learning and the integrative text and picture comprehension model assume that the heterogeneous combination of symbolic and analogous representations fosters learning; the design, functions, and tasks framework holds that learning benefits depend on the specific functions of MERs. The current paper describes a conceptual replication study of one of the few studies comparing single representations, heterogeneous, and homogeneous MERs in the context of mathematics learning. In a balanced incomplete block design, the participants were provided single representations (a graphic, text, or formula) or a heterogeneous (e.g., text + graphic) or homogeneous (text + formula) combination of these to solve linear system of equations problems. In accordance with previous research, performance was superior in conditions providing MERs compared to single‐representation conditions. Moreover, heterogeneous MERs led to time savings over homogeneous MERs which triggered an increase in cognitive load. Contrary to previous research, text was the least fixated representation whereas the graphical representation proved to be most beneficial. With regard to practical implications, experts should be fostered through more challenging homogeneous MERs whereas novices should be supported through the accessible graphic contained in heterogeneous MERs