On respect, contractualism, and moral problems

The thesis is concerned with respect as a fundamental moral notion, forms of Kantian contractualism as the most prominent contemporary moral theory being basically concerned with respect and problems of motivation and scope that are put forward against contractualist theories. The thesis aims to defend the contractualist theory of T.M. Scanlon against objections that are ultimately grounded in the acceptance of Humean theories of motivation. Consequently, the thesis is concerned with defending an alternative theory of motivation of the Kantian sort that can establish and secure the practicality and scope of contractualist theories. Furthermore, the thesis will elaborate on the nature of Kantian moral agency and its implications for moral theory. Ultimately, these investigations should vindicate respect as a fundamental moral notion and therefore the content as well as the authority of contractualist principles

Moral friends? The idea of the moral relationship

What role do human relationships play within the moral domain? There appears to be a lot of agreement that relationships play an important role in and for morality, but certainly not any foundational one. Yet, there has been a recent interest in seeking to explain the foundation of morality in relational terms. According to these relational proposals, the very foundation of impartial morality, and in particular the domain of what we owe to each other can be found in the same normative structures that are characteristic of interpersonal relationships and the partial reasons they give rise to. This suggestion has been met with serious criticism, according to which any seeming appeal to a so-called moral relationship does no work in grounding morality and the obligations that we owe to each other. The present paper intends to challenge this conclusion by arguing that the objections rendered are not decisive, as a result of which we can begin to make sense of the idea that we do share a reason-giving relationship with each other in the moral sphere. The moral relationship, the paper argues, is one we simply share with each other in virtue of our shared vulnerability to attitudinal injury as rational agents

Moral Friends? The Bipolar Standpoint

It is widely agreed upon that a certain class of obligations, like the obligation to keep one’s promise or the obligation not to step on another person’s foot, is directed and as such owed to someone in particular. In the dissertation, I argue for and defend the claim that the entire class of interpersonal obligations is directed and always owed to someone in particular. In doing so, I argue against the prevalent view, according to which our interpersonal moral obligations turn out to be ultimately owed to no one in particular. On one version of this view, defended by T.M. Scanlon, directed obligations ultimately reduce to non-directed obligations. On another version of the view, defended by Stephen Darwall, directed obligations are ultimately normatively dependent on moral obligations period. Contrary to Scanlon and Darwall, I argue that directed obligations are normatively basic. On the resulting view, even those obligations that at first appear to be non-directed and owed to no one in particular, like the obligation not to litter in the streets, turn out to be directed and thus always owed to someone in particular who stands to be wronged by another’s action. The advantage of the proposed view is that it more adequately captures what is at stake in the domain of ‘what we owe to each other’: that we do not simply do something wrong in failing to comply with our interpersonal obligations, but that we wrong others by disregarding their valid claims. In turn, this suggests an intimate connection between directed obligations and a particular form of recognition respect: in acting from a directed obligation, we recognize and acknowledge others as sources of valid claims

Acetate, lactate, propionate, and isobutyrate as electron donors for iron and sulfate reduction in Arctic marine sediments, Svalbard

The contribution of volatile fatty acids (VFA) as e–-donors for anaerobic terminal oxidation of organic carbon through iron and sulfate reduction was studied in Arctic fjord sediment. Dissolved inorganic carbon, Fe2+, VFA concentrations, and sulfate reduction were monitored in slurries from the oxidized (0–2 cm) and the reduced (5–9 cm) zone. In the 0–2 cm layer, 2/3 of the mineralization could be attributed to sulfate reduction and 1/3 to iron reduction. In the 5–9 cm layer, sulfate reduction was the sole mineralization process. Acetate and lactate turnover rates were measured by radiotracer. Inhibition of sulfate reduction with selenate resulted in the accumulation of acetate, propionate, and isobutyrate. The acetate turnover rates determined by radiotracer and accumulation after inhibition were similar. VFA turnover accounted for 21% and 52% of the mineralization through sulfate reduction in the 0–2 and 5–9 cm layer, respectively. Acetate and lactate turnover in the inhibited 0–2 cm slurry was attributed to iron reduction and accounted for 10% and 2% of the iron reduction. Therefore, 88% and 79% of the iron and sulfate reduction in the 0–2 cm layer, respectively, must be fueled by alternative e−-donors. The accumulation of VFA in the selenate–inhibited 0–2 cm slurry did not enhance iron reduction, indicating that iron reducers were not limited by VFA availability

Desulfotomaculum arcticum sp nov., a novel spore-formin, moderately thermophilic, sulfate-reducing bacterium isolated from a permanently cold fjord sediment of Svalbard

Strain 15T is a novel spore-forming, sulfate-reducing bacterium isolated from a permanently cold fjord sediment of Svalbard. Sulfate could be replaced by sulfite or thiosulfate. Hydrogen, formate, lactate, propionate, butyrate, hexanoate, methanol, ethanol, propanol, butanol, pyruvate, malate, succinate, fumarate, proline, alanine and glycine were used as electron donors in the presence of sulfate. Growth occurred with pyruvate as sole substrate. Optimal growth was observed at pH 7·1–7·5 and concentrations of 1–1·5 % NaCl and 0·4 % MgCl2. Strain 15T grew between 26 and 46·5 °C and optimal growth occurred at 44 °C. Therefore, strain 15T apparently cannot grow at in situ temperatures of Arctic sediments from where it was isolated, and it was proposed that it was present in the sediment in the form of spores. The DNA G+C content was 48·9 mol%. Strain 15T was most closely related to Desulfotomaculum thermosapovorans MLFT (93·5 % 16S rRNA gene sequence similarity). Strain 15T represents a novel species, for which the name Desulfotomaculum arcticum sp. nov. is proposed. The type strain is strain 15T (=DSM 17038T=JCM 12923T)

Smart Cities and ICT – Insights from the Morgenstadt project

According to the United Nations, 60% of the world’s population will live in urban areas by 2030 (United Nations 2012). While many cities around the world are growing and expanding, at the same time, a big number of cities in the northern hemisphere is facing reverse trends, e.g. caused by the demographic change. As a result of these trends and the comprehensive globalization, cities are competing within a global market for companies and well educated inhabitants. As an additional challenge, the climate change revealed his powerful forces during the last decades as seen in hurricanes Katrina and Sandy in 2005 respectively 2012 or typhoon Haiyan in 2013. In this context, cities are facing an extremely difficult assignment: an innovative sustainable development of the city, including ecologic, economic and social dimensions. This task includes two central requirements, making the city livable on the one hand and resilient against external factors as natural disasters or other crises on the other. This paper outlines innovative approaches of cities all over the world, in order to achieve the goal of a sustainable city of tomorrow, concentrating on the contribution of innovative information and communication technologies (ICT). The paper is based on an interdisciplinary long-term research project called “Morgenstadt: City Insights” (m:ci), which analyzed innovative and sustainable solutions and projects of the city sectors mobility, water infrastructure, production and logistics, governance, buildings, energy, security and ICT in six leading cities around the world in order to identify common characteristics and structures of success stories. Therefore, the paper first presents the research methodology of the m:ci project, followed by an overview of the examined sectors, projects and cities. Subsequently the key findings regarding the ICT sector will be presented and the role of ICT for an innovative and sustainable city development will be outlined. In this context it will be elaborated for instance how ICT enables innovative solutions of other sectors and to which extent the collection and procession of urban data contributes to a sustainable development. Finally, the paper discusses the transferability of the identified approaches and tries to illustrate possible strategies to implement such innovative and sustainable solutions

NOD2-Risikovarianten haben unterschiedliche Effekte auf bakterielle Infektionen im kompensierten und dekompensierten Stadium der Leberzirrhose

Verschiedene Varianten des NOD2-Gens (nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain) wurden mit spontan bakterieller Peritonitis und Mortalität bei Leberzirrhose assoziiert. In der vorliegenden Arbeit sollte geprüft werden, ob Mutationen im NOD2-Gen das Risiko für bakterielle Infektionen bei kompensierter und dekompensierter Leberzirrhose stadienabhängig erhöhen. Eingeschlossen wurden Patienten mit Leberzirrhose, die sowohl ambulant als auch stationär in den Universitätskliniken Homburg oder Halle behandelt wurden. Es erfolgte die Genotypisierung für die NOD2-Mutationen p.R702W, p.G908R und c3020insC. Retrospektiv wurden digitale Patientenakten (SAP-Computersystem) auf frühere sowie zum Studieneinschluss bestehende hepatische Dekompensation sowie bakterielle Infektionen überprüft. Eine hepatische Dekompensation war definiert durch das Auftreten einer Ösophagusvarizenblutung, hepatischen Enzephalopathie, Aszites und/oder Ikterus. Klinisch signifikante portale Hypertension wurde durch die Lebersteifigkeit und/oder die Lebervenenverschlussdruckmessung festgestellt. Insgesamt wurden 750 Patienten in die Studie eingeschlossen (65% Männer, Interquartilsabstand 53-68 Jahre). Die Zirrhose war überwiegend alkoholischer Genese (n = 415, 55%). Die meisten Patienten waren im dekompensierten Stadium (n = 544, 73%). Eine NOD2-Mutation war bei 164 Patienten (22%) nachweisbar. Bakterielle Infektionen wurden in 278 Fällen (37%) festgestellt. NOD2-Varianten waren assoziiert mit bakteriellen Infektionen (Odds Ratio = 1.64, P = 0.004). Bemerkenswerterweise zeigte sich bei kompensierten Patienten eine stärkere Assoziation von NOD2-Varianten mit bakteriellen Infektionen als bei dekompensierten Patienten. Bei kompensierten Patienten war die Kombination einer NOD2-Variante und klinisch signifikanter portaler Hypertension der beste unabhängige Prädiktor bakterieller Infektionen, während bei dekompensierten Patienten verschiedene Faktoren, wie das Vorhandensein einer NOD2-Risikovariante, die Milzgröße, Hämoglobin-Spiegel und Dekompensation wie hepatische Enzephalopathie oder Ikterus, relevant waren. Zusammenfassend untermauern die Ergebnisse der vorliegenden Arbeit, dass das Vorhandensein einer der NOD2-Varianten ein zusätzlicher Faktor für die Entwicklung von bakteriellen Infektionen in allen Stadien der Leberzirrhose ist. In unserer Analyse konnte dies insbesondere bei der kompensierten Leberzirrhose nachgewiesen werden. Weitere Studien zur Identifikation von Biomarkern und Entwicklung von frühen Interventionsstrategien sind notwendig.An association of common nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain containing 2 (NOD2) gene variants with spontaneous bacterial peritonitis and mortality in cirrhosis was found. The aim of this study was to investigate whether mutations in the NOD2 gene increase the risk of bacterial infection in compensated and decompensated liver cirrhosis. Patients with cirrhosis were prospectively included in two academic medical centers. Genotyping was performed for the NOD2 mutations p.R702W, p.G908R and c3020insC. Electronic medical records were retrospectively screened for bacterial infections (requiring antibiotic therapy) and past and present decompensation (as defined by ascites, hepatic encephalopathy, esophageal variceal bleeding, and/or jaundice). Clinically significant portal hypertension was detected by hepatic venous pressure gradient measurements and/or liver stiffness-spleensize-platelet-count-score. A total of 750 patients were enrolled (men 65%, interquartile age range 53-68 years). Cirrhosis was predominantly alcoholic (n = 415, 55%). 544 patients were in the decompensated stage (73%). A NOD2 risk variant was detectable in 164 patients (22%). Bacterial infections were found in 278 patients (37%), and NOD2 variants were associated with bacterial infections (odds ratio = 1.64, p = 0.004). Of note, NOD2 variants showed a stronger association to bacterial infections in compensated than in decompensated patients. In compensated patients, the combination of NOD2 variants and clinically significant portal hypertension was the most accurate independent predictor of bacterial infections, while in decompensated patients, various factors (including NOD2, spleen size, hemoglobin and decompensation such as hepatic encephalopathy or jaundice) were relevant. In conclusion, we demonstrated an association of NOD2 risk variants with bacterial infections in cirrhosis, showing stronger association in compensated than in decompensated patients. Further studies are needed to identify biomarkers and develop early intervention strategies for high risk patients with cirrhosis

Desulfuromonas svalbardensis sp nov and Desulfuromusa ferrireducens sp nov., psychrophilic, Fe(III)-reducing bacteria isolated from Arctic sediments, Svalbard

Two psychrophilic, Gram-negative, rod-shaped, motile bacteria (strains 112T and 102T) that conserved energy from dissimilatory Fe(III) reduction concomitant with acetate oxidation were isolated from permanently cold Arctic marine sediments. Both strains grew at temperatures down to -2 degrees C, with respective temperature optima of 14 degrees C and 14-17 degrees C for strains 112T and 102T. The isolated strains reduced Fe(III) using common fermentation products such as acetate, lactate, propionate, formate or hydrogen as electron donors, and they also grew with fumarate as the sole substrate. As alternatives to Fe(III), they reduced fumarate, S0 and Mn(IV). Based on 16S rRNA gene sequence similarity, strain 112T was most closely related to Desulfuromonas acetoxidans (97.0 %) and Desulfuromonas thiophila NZ27T (95.5 %), and strain 102T to Malonomonas rubra Gra Mal 1T (96.3 %) and Desulfuromusa succinoxidans GylacT (95.9 %) within the Deltaproteobacteria. Strains 112T and 102T therefore represent novel species, for which the names Desulfuromonas svalbardensis sp. nov. (type strain 112T=DSM 16958T=JCM 12927T) and Desulfuromusa ferrireducens sp. nov. (type strain 102T=DSM 16956T=JCM 12926T) are proposed

Fit für Industrie 4.0? Ergebnisse einer empirischen Untersuchung im Rahmen des Forschungsprojektes "Fit für Industrie 4.0"

Im Projekt 'Fit für Industrie 4.0' wurden die Auswirkungen der Digitalisierung in NRW-Unternehmen auf die Beschäftigung und Kompetenzanforderungen differenziert nach Beschäftigtengruppen untersucht. Dargestellt werden die Ergebnisse aus explorativen Experteninterviews (n=8) und einer Onlinebefragung (n=150). Die Digitalisierung gewinnt in Unternehmen aller Größen und Branchen an Bedeutung, vor allem mit dem Fokus auf die Verbesserungen von internen Prozessen. Abgesehen von einem prognostizierten leichten Arbeitsplatzrückgang in der Gruppe 'An- und Ungelernte', wurden in der Studie keine gravierenden Auswirkungen der Digitalisierung auf die Beschäftigung identifiziert. Die Aufgaben aller Beschäftigtengruppen werden sich verändern, wodurch neue Kompetenzanforderungen entstehen. Neben dem Aufbau von IT- und Medienkompetenzen gilt es, persönliche und soziale Fähigkeiten auszubauen und zu stärken. Die Beschäftigten brauchen laut Einschätzung der Unternehmen für die Arbeitswelt 4.0 vor allen Dingen Offenheit und Lernfähigkeit. Unternehmen sind gut beraten, sich mit der Weiterbildung für die Zukunft rechtzeitig zu beschäftigen, da diese Investition in die Menschen auf Dauer erfolgversprechend ist.In the project 'Fit for Industry 4.0', the effects of digitalisation in North Rhine-Westphalia companies on employment and competence requirements were examined, differentiated according to employee groups. The results of explorative expert interviews (n=8) and an online survey (n=150) are presented. Digitalisation is gaining in importance in companies of all sizes and sectors, especially with a focus on optimising internal processes. Apart from a predicted slight decline in the number of jobs in the 'semi-skilled and unskilled' group, the study did not identify any serious effects of digitalisation on employment. The tasks of all employee groups will change, resulting in new competence requirements. In addition to developing IT and media skills, personal and social skills need to be developed and strengthened. The surveyed companies estimate that, above all employees need openness and the ability to learn for the working environment. Enterprises are well advised to deal with further training for the future at an early stage, as this investment in people is promising on a long-term basis