Selecting and modifying methods of manual muscle testing for classification in Paralympic sport

Many Paralympic sports classification systems use unspecified manual muscle testing (MMT) methods to assess impairment of muscle strength. This is a potential source of inconsistency in classification, and could be eliminated by nominating a single, published set of MMT methods. Additionally, four modifications can enhance the validity, reliability and utility of conventional MMT methods for classification: 1) limiting assessment to movements that are important to performance in the sport concerned; 2) specifying a single preferred technique for assessment of movement strength; 3) changing the reference range of movement from normal anatomical range to the maximum range of movement required in sport; and 4) adjusting testing techniques so that they are relevant for the sport. This brief communication may improve classification in established sports, and provide guidance for emerging sports that are developing classification systems

Relative age affects marathon performance in male and female athletes

Marathon runners are ranked in 5-year age groups. However the extent to which 5-year groupings facilitates equitable competition has not been evaluated. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of relative age in male and female marathon running. Marathon finishing times for the top ten male (aged 20-69 years) and female athletes (aged 20-64 years) were obtained from the 2013 New York and Chicago marathons. Intra-class and inter-class validity were evaluated by comparing performances within (intra-class) and between (inter-class) the 5-year age groups. Results showed intra-class effects in all male age groups over 50 years, in all female age groups over 40 years, and in male and female 20-24 age groups (p < 0.05). Inter-class differences existed between the 20-24 and 25-29 age groups in both males and females, between all male age groups over 50 years, and between all female age groups over 40 years (p < 0.05). This study provided the first evaluation of the effects of relative age in male and female marathon running. The results provide preliminary but compelling evidence that the relatively older male athletes in age groups over 50 years and the relatively older females in age groups over 40 years are competitively disadvantaged compared to the younger athletes in these age groups

Dietary patterns of competitive swimmers with moderate-to-severe cerebral palsy : A 3-year longitudinal evaluation

Aim: To evaluate the longitudinal dietary patterns of three adolescents with moderate-to-severe cerebral palsy (CP) participating in a performance-focused swimming training intervention. Method: Participants were three previously inactive adolescents with CP (15–16 years, GMFCS IV) who had recently (<6 months) enrolled in a swimming training program. Diet quality from diet histories was calculated at 10-time points over 3.25 years using the Dietary Guidelines Index for Children and Adolescents (DGI-CA) and the Healthy Eating Index for Australian Adults (HEIFA-2013). A food group analysis was compared to the Australian Guide to Healthy Eating recommendations. Trends were considered in the context of dietary advice given and the training load. Results: Longitudinal diet quality scores were consistent and ranged from 40 to 76 (DGI-CA) and 33 to 79 (HEIFA-2013). Food group intake remained stable; participants rarely met the recommendations for fruit, vegetables, dairy, grain, and meat but frequently achieved discretionary serves. Conclusions: Participants with moderate-to-severe CP who were enrolled in a performance-focused swimming training intervention and were monitored frequently maintained diet quality throughout a period where it conventionally declined. Scores were higher than the general population and were maintained irrespective of the training load. Participants frequently met food group recommendations for discretionary foods and were comparable to the general population for other food groups

Using Fitts Law’ to detect intentional misrepresentation

In paralympic classification, tests of impaired coordination (e.g., reciprocal tapping tasks) are effort dependent and therefore susceptible to intentional misrepresentation of abilities (IM)-deliberate exaggeration of impairment severity. The authors investigated whether reciprocal tapping tasks performed submaximally could be differentiated from tapping tasks performed with maximal voluntary effort, based on conformity with Fitts' law. Ten nondisabled participants performed 14 tapping tasks with their dominant hand on 3 separate occasions. Seven tasks were performed with MVE and the other 7 at speeds that were at least 20% slower. Results revealed that evaluating conformity with Fitts' law is a potentially valid method for objectively detecting IM during reciprocal tapping. Evaluation of sensitivity and specificity of the method is now warranted

Towards evidenced based classification in Paralympic athletics: Evaluating the valdity of activity limitation tests for use in classification of Paralympic running events

Objective: To classify Paralympic athletes, classifiers use test batteries to obtain an objective, pre-competition estimate of an athlete's training level. Five tests were evaluated to determine which combination explained the maximum variance in running performance in a non-disabled population. A non-disabled sample was required to permit psychometric evaluation of the tests without the confounding influence of impairment, and to provide an indication of normative performance

Measurement of habitual physical activity performance in adolescents with cerebral palsy: a systematic review

AIM This systematic review compares the validity, reliability, and clinical use of habitual physical activity (HPA) performance measures in adolescents with cerebral palsy (CP). METHOD Measures of HPA across GrossMotor Function Classification System(GMFCS) levels I-V for adolescents (10-18y) with CP were included if at least 60% of items reported HPA performance in the domains of intensity, frequency, duration, and mode. RESULTS Seven measures of HPA performance met the criteria: StepWatch, pedometers, Uptimer, heart rate flex method, accelerometers, and self-report measures including the Children's Activity Participation and Enjoyment (CAPE) scale and the Physical Activity Questionnaire for Adolescents. The CAPE scale had the strongest validity and reliability but was limited by its inability to measure activity intensity. No study was identified that evaluated the psychometric properties of physical activity measures in non-ambulant adolescents with CP (GMFCS levels IV and V). INTERPRETATION When deciding on an appropriate measure of HPA in adolescents with CP, clinicians need to consider their research question including the domains of HPA they are evaluating and the population they wish to assess. Accelerometers provide the most robust information about the patterns of HPA, with some evidence of validity but limited data on reliability. Further research is needed to compare the use of tri- and uniaxial accelerometers

Measurement of habitual physical activity performance in adolescents with cerebral palsy: a systematic review

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Relative Age Affects Marathon Performance in Male and Female Athletes

Marathon runners are ranked in 5-year age groups. However the extent to which 5-year groupings facilitates equitable competition has not been evaluated. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of relative age in male and female marathon running. Marathon finishing times for the top ten male (aged 20-69 years) and female athletes (aged 20-64 years) were obtained from the 2013 New York and Chicago marathons. Intra-class and inter-class validity were evaluated by comparing performances within (intra-class) and between (inter-class) the 5-year age groups. Results showed intra-class effects in all male age groups over 50 years, in all female age groups over 40 years, and in male and female 20-24 age groups (p < 0.05). Inter-class differences existed between the 20-24 and 25-29 age groups in both males and females, between all male age groups over 50 years, and between all female age groups over 40 years (p < 0.05). This study provided the first evaluation of the effects of relative age in male and female marathon running. The results provide preliminary but compelling evidence that the relatively older male athletes in age groups over 50 years and the relatively older females in age groups over 40 years are competitively disadvantaged compared to the younger athletes in these age groups

Applying scientific principles to enhance paralympic classification now and\ua0in the future: a research primer for rehabilitation specialists

Para-sport classification systems define eligibility for Para sport and provide a competition structure that controls for the impact of impairment on the outcome of competition. This article focuses on the classification of para athletes with physical impairments. Development of classification systems based on scientific evidence has only recently been made possible by adoption of a statement of the purpose of classification by the International Paralympic Committee and its member organizations. Rigorous descriptive science can improve extant systems of classification and a recently published study described a data-driven classification structure with validity superior to that of the extant system