Containers and grains: food storage and symbolism in the Central Balkans (Vinča period)

Since Flannery, who showed that types and locations of storage facilities provide a variety of associations for explaining social change, the economic and social role of storage has been reviewed numerous times. So far, no research pertaining to storage practice has been conducted in the Central Balkans. However, storage strategies play an important role in the agricultural history of the region. Similar, or exactly the same storage techniques have been practiced from the Early Neolithic until modern times, and even today some are practiced by traditional farming communities. Hence this article, which is intended to lay the foundations for understanding the relation between economic and social processes as reflected by storage behaviour in the Late Neolithic-Early Eneolithic in the Central Balkans region.Gospodarska in družbena vloga skladiščnih prostorov je bila že večkrat pregledana, odkar je Flannery pokazal, da zagotavljajo tipi in lokacije shramb raznolika združevanja za pojasnitve družbenih sprememb. Do sedaj ni bila opravljena še nobena raziskava praks skladiščenja za področje centralnega Balkana. Podobne ali celo povsem enake tehnike skladiščenja so v uporabi od zgodnjega neolitika do sodobnega časa, nekatere tehnike se še danes uporabljajo v tradicionalnih poljedelskih skupnostih. V članku nameravam postaviti temelje za razumevanje odnosov med gospodarskimi in družbenimi procesi, kot so izraženi v vedenju pri skladiščenju v poznem neolitiku – zgodnjem eneolitiku v centralni balkanski regiji

Role of obsidian in the Neolithic: Utilitarian objects or means of prestige

Ležišta opsidijana na centralnobalkanskom prostoru nisu poznata i lokalne neolitske zajednice su ga nabavljale iz najbližih izvora u Karpatima. Sa druge strane, geološka struktura centralnog Balkana nudi brojne mogućnosti za eksploataciju sličnih sirovina i neposredna potreba za opsidijanom nije postojala. Prilog predstavlja pokušaj autora da utvrdi kakvim je motivima pokrenuto učešće opsidijana u razmeni i kakvu je vrednost imao za neolitske zajednice. Ideja o opsidijanu kao robi prestižnog karaktera testirana je kontekstualnom analizom u neolitskim kulturama centralnog Balkana i ponuđena su neka alternativna rešenja. Prema autoru, njegova vrednost je generalno definisana u procesu neolitizacije evropskog prostora i proistekla je iz istorijskog i kulturnog ambijenta u kojem se javlja.We presented in this work how the value of obsidian could be examined from different standpoints even within such general category as is the principle of general relation to the Neolithic cultures and that acquired results do not essentially stand out and do not negate each other. The idea of obsidian as the means of prestige had been tested by contextual analysis in the Neolithic cultures of the central Balkans. The acquired result did not confirm the assumption that obsidian was used as the means to denote the status and distinction of the individuals among the other members of the community. However, it has been indicated that wish for obsidian, need to acquire it, participation in the exchange system and large distance from which it was obtained could be the indication of the certain system of values and beliefs that was generally appreciated within the Neolithic communities. Therefore, we examined the alternative hypothesis by analyzing the value of obsidian in the ideological contexts which could be most easily designated by the expressions as 'ancestral stone', 'stone from the past', 'mythical stone' etc. Understood in such a way obsidian represented a metaphor of the new, Neolithic way of life and its realization in all segments, the model for that being the populations from the East by means of which they got acquainted with it. The essential difference is, however, in the comprehension of the historic role of the obsidian. It represented, in Anadolia and the Near East, mechanism or one of the mechanisms of the process of Neolitization while in Europe, in certain regions such function has also been indicated. Value of obsidian could and should be verified in different ways and in other cultures. It is probable that new data and different initial viewpoints could influence making of certain new assumptions. So, I think that we should not insist definitely on any of the solutions especially if there is great potentiality for further investigations. But in the course of the future investigations the following scenarios should be taken as premises: Obsidian had not been prestigious good. Its frequent occurrence at the sites near the sources is the consequence of the relatively easy access and intensive exploitation. In the regions out of the zones of origin it does not occur so often and it is the confirmation for trade in the Neolithic. Obsidian had been prestigious good. Its rather rare occurrence, good mechanical characteristics, highly esteemed aesthetic values and difficult conditions of procurement are just some of the reasons why obsidian had been treated as means of prestige within Neolithic communities. Along with other kind of similar goods obsidian had been main object of exchange but at the same time it stimulated the exchange of goods necessary in everyday life. There is the question whether it should have been apparent also by large deposits (grave, hoard, etc) within archaeological context. Experience that we have so far does not speak in favor of such an assumption. There has been the need for every Neolithic culture at least within its larger centers to possess certain amount of obsidian but not as prestigious value and not as the object used to confirm individual identities. The need for obsidian appeared as the result of the information about the ways of introduction of the new forms of existence 'somewhere in the east' and an attempt to create identical history. In that sense the obsidian besides its utilitarian function might has had distinct and explicit symbolic concept. It used as metaphor, as medium by which history had been imitated and complemented should denote Ncolitization on the psychological level. Therefore there was no need for its contextualization, as by narrative transmission the value of obsidian had not been connected to concrete, particular things or events but to the general principles. Its main purpose for the community had been achieved already by the very act of procurement and its further biography had been attained through the activities of physical utilization

The origin and exchange of obsidian from Vinča-Belo Brdo

Regionalni značaj lokaliteta Belo brdo u Vinči i njegova aktivna uloga u mreži razmene najbolje se ogledaju u velikom broju 'egzotičnih' dobara koji u različitom stepenu karakterišu sve vinčanske nivoe. I dok su nalazi od bakra ili nakit od marinskih školjaka u poslednje vreme detaljno proučavani opsidijan je, kao važan simbol komunikacije i kontakata nadregionalnog značaja, ostao ograničen na tipološku analizu unutar okresane industrije naselja. Zbirka opsidijana iz Vinče, međutim, predstavlja jednu od tri najbrojnije zbirke na teritoriji današnje Srbije, i daleko najbrojniju zbirku južno od Save i Dunava. Njeni nedostaci su više kontekstualne prirode ogledajući se u nepostojanju preciznih istraživačkih podataka o sistemskom kontekstu većine artefakata, što je uostalom slučaj i sa većinom drugih objekata iz Vinče, i stoga će mnoga pitanja oko njihove vezanosti za određene objekte (odnosno domaćinstva), ili načina depozicije zauvek ostati otvorena. Ipak, za razliku od naselja oko Vršca u jugoistočnoj Panoniji, odakle za velike opsidijanske zbirke postoji malo podataka o uslovima nalaza zahvaljujući studioznom radu Miloja Vasića za nalaze iz Vinče postoje precizni podaci o stratigrafskoj poziciji i, prema tome, o relativnoj frekventnosti artefakata kroz sve stratigrafske nivoe. To je važno naglasiti jer vertikalne i slojevite sekvence vinčanskog naselja dozvoljavaju poređenje ne samo frekventnosti opsidijana kroz vreme, već i poređenje sa drugim vrstama importovanih ili lokalno izrađivanih dobara, trasirajući puteve i istorijski kontekst kojim su opsidijan i druga roba regionalnog i interkulturnog značaja dospeli na ovo važno nalazište evropske praistorije. Od vremena revolucionarne karakterizacije opsidijana šezdesetih godina 20. veka, analizi hemijskog sastava podvrgnut je tek neznatan broj uzoraka sa teritorije današnje Srbije, od čega najmanje sedam iz naselja u Vinči. Postojeći rezultati ukazali su da opsidijan sa centralnog Balkana vodi poreklo iz karpatskih ležišta što, s jedne strane, predstavlja dobru osnovu za odbacivanje nekadašnjih romantičarskih ideja o postojanju lokalnih izvora opsidijana negde na centralnom Balkanu, nudeći, s druge strane, dobro utemeljenje zaključke o mreži razmene interregionalnog značaja tokom kasnog neolita, čiji je važan deo bio i opsidijan. Ipak, neophodno je primetiti da dosadašnje karakterizacije, urađene na neadekvatnom broju uzoraka, iskazuju potrebu da se kompleksne stratigrafske sekvence naselja u Vinči, ali i drugih naselja u okruženju, protumače i kroz odgovarajući broj karakterisanih opsidijanskih uzoraka. Stoga je 2006. pokrenut veliki projekat karakterisanja opsidijanskih artefakata sa centralnog Balkana i u tu svrhu, iz okresane industrije naselja u Vinči izdvojeno je 60 uzoraka, što predstavlja oko 4% referentne zbirke. S obzirom na moćnu stratigrafsku sekvencu lokaliteta napravljena je kompleksna strategija selekcije uzoraka, sa jasnim metodološkim ishodištima: a) da izdvojeni uzorci reprezentuju celu neolitsku sekvencu i b) da se testira mogućnost buduće makroskopske autopsije porekla opsidijanskog artefakta. Nakon analize opsidijanskih uzoraka EDXRF metodom pokazalo se da svi artefakti iz Vinče potiču iz ležišta Karpatski 1 u današnjoj Slovačkoj (DIJAGRAM 1), što je potpuno u skladu sa svim ranijim karakterizacijama vinčanskih opsidijana u regionu, uključujući i one iz rumunskog dela Banata. S obzirom na broj karakterisanih uzoraka i kompleksnu proceduru uzorkovanja, stvorene su za dalji rad dve važne analitičke pretpostavke: prva, isključivo tehničke prirode, predstavljala je važan korak ka afirmaciji buduće makroskopske autopsije opsidijana iz izvora Karpatski 1 na centralnom Balkanu; i druga, u spekulativnom smislu dalekosežnija, da svi primerci iz opsidijanske zbirke sa lokaliteta Belo brdo u Vinči potiču iz samo jednog, dakle istog izvora. Ako se druga pretpostavka u budućnosti pokaže kao tačna, onda posedujemo nedvosmislenu potvrdu da je zajednica u Vinči, uostalom kao i druge zajednice u okruženju, prepoznavala, cenila i vrednovala uglavnom opsidijan iz današnjeg ležišta Karpatski 1. Za razumevanje broja opsidijanskih artefakata i porekla sirovine, najvažnija su pitanja koja se odnose na karakter kontakata zajednice iz Vinče sa zajednicama na severu, preko kojih su taj opsidijan dobavljale. Tradicionalno se prihvata da su stanovnici naselja u Vinči intenzivne i dugoročne interkulturne kontakte održavali sa potiskim zajednicama u Karpatskom basenu o čemu svedoče ne samo mnogobrojni opsidijanski artefakti, nego i sporadična pojava keramike i drugog materijala iz potiskog kulturnog kruga. Osim toga šira zona srednjeg Podunavlja, zajedno sa Vinčom i jugoistočnom Panonijom deo je interaktivnog kulturnog kruga, u kome cirkulišu druge vrste kulturno nespecifičnih artefakata, npr. nakit od alabastera, mermera i marinskih školjaka. Opsidijan je svakako bio jedna od spona i razlog komunikacije i kontakata vinčanske i zajednica u Potisju, te se njegova dominacija u okresanoj industriji Vinče, nekoliko stotina kilometara od izvora, može razumeti kao proizvod efektne mreže razmene, koja je morala biti i bila je manifestovana i pojavom drugih egzotičnih dobara. Broj opsidijanskih artefakata u Vinči pokreće pitanje na koji način je nabavka opsidijana uglavnom iz samo jednog izvora uticala na njegovu dalju distribuciju u druge delove centralnog Balkana. Kako je primećeno, ukupna težina artefakata iz Vinče relativno je niska i mada je naselje moralo nekako uticati na količine opsidijana u naseljima južno od Save i Dunava, veliko je pitanje da li se može govoriti o organizovanoj i društveno stimulisanoj mreži razmene od Podunavlja prema unutrašnjosti Balkana. Opsidijanski artefakti na lokalitetima južno od Save i Dunava, naročito u dolinama Velike i Južne Morave, javljaju se u ograničenom obimu, pojedinačno ili do nekoliko desetina komada, ne uklapajući se najbolje u staru ideju Kolina Renfrua o proporcionalnom opadanju broja opsidijana tokom 'razmene duž puta'. Zadržavanje većine opsidijana u Vinči, kao i dalja razmena veoma ograničenog broja sečiva (i/ili jezgara?) ukazuju na to da je u mreži razmene postojalo više interaktivnih nivoa, te da su neka naselja svakako bila isključena iz nje. Takođe, u vreme kada frekventnost opsidijana u Vinči drastično opada neka naselja sadrže veoma ograničen broj opsidijanskih artefakata (npr. Gomolava, Divostin, Banjica), što pokazuje neki poremećaj u aktivnoj i dugo vremena praktikovanoj mreži razmene, i možda reflektuje šire kulturne promene u karpatskom basenu. U isto vreme, većina drugih na- selja na centralnom Balkanu, naročito ona južno od Save i Dunava, okrenuta su upotrebi lako dostupnih izvora kamenih sirovina u neposrednom okruženju naselja. Stoga bi u budućnosti pregled i karakterizacija opsidijanskih zbirki iz drugih naselja mogli ukazati na kompleksnost delovanja mreže razmene tokom kasnog neolita na centralnom Balkanu. Za sada, ne bi bilo na odmet pretpostaviti da najjužniji opsidijani iz Karpatske oblasti, otkriveni u Mandalo u Egejskoj Makedoniji i verovatno, nešto severnije u Žitkovcu na Kosovu, reprezentuju alternativne rute i obrasce kretanja različitih dobara, uključujući i kretanje pojedinaca van uobičajenih tokova recipročne razmene.Since the time of the revolutionary characterization of obsidian in the 1960's only a small number of artefacts from the Serbian sites have been analyzed, of which at least seven samples come from the site of Vinča. These results showed that obsidian was coming from Carpathian sources, disproving old romantic ideas of the existence of local obsidian sources in the central Balkans. These results allowed for the development of ideas about exchange networks of interregional importance during the Late Neolithic in which obsidian was an integral component. In this paper we will be discussing the results of the characterization of 60 obsidian samples, representing ca. 4% of the entire obsidian assemblage from the site. The samples were taken from the whole Neolithic sequence at Vinča selecting macroscopically different obsidian types

Spondylus and Glycymeris bracelets: trade reflections at Neolithic Vinča-Belo Brdo

In the provision, production and exchange of prestigious items and materials in prehistoric Europe, marine shell ornaments play important role. The marine shell collection at the Vinča-Belo Brdo site is the largest in the central and northern Balkans. More than 300 ornament items manufactured from marine shells have been collected since the first excavations in 1908 up until the most recent campaign. The majority of ornaments were made using recent shells that were obtained through trade with contemporaneous Neolithic communities; few ornaments were made of fossil bivalve shells. Bracelets were the most common type. Two bivalve genera, Spondylus and Glycymeris, were used in their production. These are easily recognizable when complete valves are compared, but difficult to distinguish in highly modified items where shell morphology is obscured. The defining characteristics for shell identification are presented, particularly to differentiate ornaments manufactured from the Spondylus and Glycymeris genera, as well as those made of recent and fossil shells. The possible exchange routes for these are discussed, as well as their diachronic distribution at the Vinča site.Okraski iz morskih školjk so igrali pomembno vlogo pri pripravi, izdelavi in menjavi prestižnih predmetov in materialov v prazgodovinski Evropi. Zbirka morskih školjk iz najdišča Vinča Belo Brdo je največja na centralnem in severnem Balkanu. Od prvih izkopavanj leta 1908, do danes so našli več kot 300 okrasnih predmetov, izdelanih iz morskih školjk. Večino okrasnih predmetov so izdelali iz recentnih školjk, ki so jih dobili z menjavo s sočasnimi neolitskimi skupnostmi, nekaj pa so jih izdelali iz fosilnih dvolupinskih školjk. Najpogostejše so bile zapestnice. Za njihovo izdelavo so uporabljali dva rodova školjk, Spondylus in Glycymeris. Te rodova sta lahko prepoznavna, če primerjamo cele lupine, težko pa ju razločujemo pri močno spremenjenih predmetih, kjer je školjčna morfologija nejasna. Predstavljamo ključne elemente, ki omogočajo razpoznavo školjk, iz katerih so izdelani okrasni predmeti. Analiziramo poti njihove menjave in diahronično distribucijo na najdišču Vinča

Neolitsko nalazište i javnost: primer Donje Branjevine kod Odžaka

U stručnoj javnosti Donja Branjevina poznata je od polovine 60-ih godina 20. veka kao arheološko nalazište iz ranog neolita. U decenijama nakon otkrića sprovedena su obimna istraživanja, uz mnoge aktivnosti na zaštiti i prezentaciji, što ga je učinilo jednim od najpoznatijih i najznačajnijih praistorijskih nalazišta u Srbiji. U ovom radu prikazani su konteksti i okolnosti razvoja praistorijske arheologije u Srbiji koji su, prema našem mišljenju, doveli do prepoznavanja strukovnog i, potom, javnog značaja arheološkog nalazišta Donja Branjevina, odnosno jednog specifičnog nalaza, antropomorfne figurine poznate kao Crvenokosa boginja. Naš cilj je: 1) da ukažemo da su značaj Donje Branjevine i Crvenokose boginje inicirani i oblikovani još pre njihovog otkrića, kroz prethodni proces disciplinarnog razvoja u kome su posebnost nalazišta i nalaza bili iznenadno, ali dobrodošlo otkriće; 2) da podsetimo/skrenemo pažnju da upotreba arheološkog saznanja u modernom društvu, iako van okvira disciplinarne prakse, i dalje ima primarno uporište u samoj disciplini, odnosno u onome šta je i na koji način prezentovano javnosti. U zaključku, umesto da kritički preispitujemo moderno društvo i neočekivane ishode, skloniji smo da istaknemo potrebu temeljnog preispitivanja same discipline, odnosno načina na koji prikupljamo, vrednujemo i prezentujemo podatke

House(hold) continuities in the Central Balkans, 5300-4600 BC

Izgradnja i napuštanje kuće predstavljaju dva kraja istoga procesa i dešifriranje pojedinačnih epizoda tijekom upotrebe građevine može predstavljati dobru osnovu za razumijevanje promjena u veličini i organizaciji domaćinstva. Obnova kuće ili dogradnja nove prostorije, obnova poda ili izgradnja nove peći i nov malterni premaz na zidovima kuće samo su neke od arheološki prepoznatljivih promjena tijekom upotrebe građevine. Dakle može se očekivati da se promjene u veličini domaćinstva mogu sagledati uspostavljanjem zakonomjernoga odnosa između faza socijalne reprodukcije domaćinstva i strukturnih promjena na građevini u kojoj ono živi. U nastavku teksta ta je ideja detaljnije obrazložena na primjeru kasnoga neolitika/ranoga eneolitika na središnjemu Balkanu (vinčanska kultura) predstavljajući vrijeme od oko 5300. do 4600. g. pr. n. e.The construction and abandonment of houses are two terminal points in the same process, and decoding individual episodes during the use of a structure may constitute a sound basis for understanding changes in the size and organization of households. The renovation of houses or the additional construction of new rooms, the renovation of floors or construction of a new oven and new plaster on the walls are only some of the archeologically recognizable changes during the use of a structure. Therefore, one may expect that changes in the size of a household may be reflected in the establishment of a standardized relationship between phases of social reproduction of a household and structural change in the building in which it resides. In the text, this idea is explained in greater detail using the example of the Late Neolithic/Early Eneolithic in the Central Balkans (Vinča culture), covering the time span from 5300 to 4600 BC

Marine shell hoard from the Late Neolithic site of Čepin-Ovčara (Slavonia, Croatia)

The focus of this paper is the ornament hoard from the Sopot culture site of Čepin-Ovčara in eastern Slavonia (the Republic of Croatia). The hoard contained pendants and beads made of shells of marine clam Spondylus gaederopus and scaphopod Antalis vulgaris. The paper analyses the context and use wear of the objects in the hoard. The results form a basis for: the reconstruction of the role of some of the items and the ways in which they were worn; the premise that the dynamics and mechanisms of acquisition of ornaments made of the two Mediterranean mollusc species could have differed; and the identification of a cross-cultural pattern of deposition of ornament hoards.V članku se osredotočamo na zakladno najdbo z nakitom iz časa sopotske kulture na najdišču Čepin-Ovčara v vzhodni Slavoniji (Republika Hrvaška). Depo vsebuje obeske in jagode, izdelane iz lupin morskih školjk vrste Spondylus gaederopus in polžkov vrste Antalis vulgaris. V članku analiziramo kontekste in sledove uporabe teh izdelkov. Rezultati nam nudijo osnovo za: rekonstrukcijo vloge nekaterih izdelkov in načinov nošenja nakita; premiso o različnih dinamikah in mehanizmih pridobivanja okrasov iz dveh sredozemskih vrst mehkužcev; in za prepoznavanje medkulturnih vzorcev odlaganja zakladnih najdb z nakitom

Dentalium beads: Shells of fosillised sea molluscs at the Vinča-Belo Brdo site

Dentalium je morski mekušac, iz klase Scaphopoda. Tokom većeg dela praistorije ljušture dentalijuma korišćene su kao perle, zahvaljujući cevastom obliku ljušture. Na nalazištu Belo brdo u selu Vinča, perle od dentalijuma nalažene su u svim nivoima naselja vinčanske kulture, kao i u kontekstima mlađih praistorijskih kultura. LJušture za njihovu izradu, stanovnici naselja na Belom brdu sakupljali su u široj okolini - na nalazištima fosila miocenske starosti.During excavation of the Vinča-Belo Brdo site a significant number of decorated items made from clay, stone, bone, and seashells or snail shells have been collected over the years. Amongst the decorated objects which could be classified as jewellery the majority are bracelets, pendants, and beads made from Spondylus and Glycymeris shells, as well as beads made from Dentalium shells. The appearance of these beads and the question of their origin have not yet been specifically considered within studies of prehistoric cultures in the central Balkans. Furthermore, they have rarely been illustrated and mentioned in archaeological site inventories, which we presume has not been because of their poor representation, but rather because of their being unfamiliar. The aim of this work is therefore to: a) systematize data about Dentalium beads from all phases of excavation of the Belo Brdo site in Vinča; b) to show the importance of this kind of jewellery in the study of resources around the Vinča settlement; and c) to indicate the wider chronological perspective and the significance of studying Dentalium beads within the prehistory of the central Balkans. Dentalium is a carnivorous Scaphopoda sea mollusc, uncommon and insufficiently studied. Representatives of this class of Scaphopoda have been found on Serbian territory in the Badenian sediments, deposited fifteen million years ago. Badenian sediments were discovered around Loznica, Belgrade, Aranđelovac, Golubac, Zaječar, and Negotin. The region of Belgrade and the surrounding area had been covered by a warm, shallow sea of normal salination. On the territory of Belgrade, offsprings of the Badenian sediments, rich in fossils, have been discovered in the city centre (Tašmajdan, Kalemegdan), as well as in many surrounding places (Rakovica, Kaluđerica, Leštani, and Jajinci) (fig. 2). Scaphopod shells found at the Vinča-Belo Brdo archaeological site are usually transversally broken. Judging by the basic appearance of the shells and their ornamentation (longitudinal stripes and rising lines) on better preserved examples (fig. 3: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5) the Fissidentalium badense type is distinct. The ornamentation of the shell is in most cases well preserved, save that in a few examples the longitudinal stripes are broken (fig. 3:22) or the outer surface of the shell has been abraded/dissolved by a physical-chemical agent. Dentalium shells have been used for making jewellery from prehistoric times right up to the present day. The reason for this lies in the regular shape of the shell, which is completely unchanged, or, with a little effort, can be used as one longer or (by breaking it laterally) a larger number of shorter cylindrical beads. On the territory of Serbia today, pre-Neolithic beads have not been known to date. Neither have they been cited in published materials from early-Neolithic to mid-Neolithic Starčevo sites. On the basis of literature, we would say that they appear for the first time in late Neolithic/early Eneolithic times, that is, in the period of the Vinča culture. After that time, it seems that Dentalium beads were mostly used during the Bronze Age, judging from the grave inventories of the necropolis in Mokrin (Moriš culture), where there are findings in around 10% of graves. These are formed from fossilized shells. The beads are usually strung together and were worn around the neck. Usually they were strung in combination with beads and pendants made from other materials (for example teeth, bones, kaolin, stone, bronze etc). Since excavation of the Vinča-Belo Brdo site began in 1908, until 2009, 362 Dentalium beads were found. With the exception of one case, beads were formed from fossilized shells. Most fossilized shells were used by the inhabitants of Belo Brdo in the form in which they were found. Very rarely, traces of workmanship on the edges of beads can be noticed under magnification - carving and polishing (fig. 3: 21), showing that beads were sometimes finished off, probably when natural breaks were not rounded off but were too sharp, or when they the shells were broken to obtain smaller pieces. Beads are located in all levels of Vinča culture settlements, with depths of between ▼0.7-▼9.0 m (fig. 4a). However, at depths of between ▼6.5 and ▼7.3 m, only one bead has been found (at ▼7.0 m) which indicates a reduced interest in Dentalium beads, to the extent of the cessation of their use in the corresponding period. It is not clear whether the beads were worn individually or in a string. Most beads were found individually, but this does not necessarily mean that they were not worn in strings, since these may have been dismantled prior to their deposit. Twenty-nine beads found together indicates that at least some were worn strung (▼8.2 m), as do two pairs of connected beads (with the narrow end of one placed in the wider end of the second bead (fig. 3: 24). Regarding the question of how inhabitants of the Belo Brdo settlement found Dentalium shells, there is no doubt that they were collected in deposits of fossils situated in the wider surroundings of Vinča. The same kind of scaphopod Fissidentalium badense is present among shells used as beads, as well as in Miocene deposits in the area. The taphonomic characteristics of archaeological examples do not differ from samples collected in fossil deposits. It is interesting that inhabitants of the Belo Brdo collected other fossils too, sometimes bringing them to the settlement, but rarely using them for jewellery. Undoubtedly Dentalium shells were accepted as 'ready made' beads, but it is also possible that the Dentalia were chosen because they were 'in fashion', since the Belo Brdo inhabitants may have known that they were used in other parts of the pre-historic world

Dentalium beads - shells of fosillised sea molluscs at the Vinča-Belo brdo site

During excavation of the Vinča-Belo Brdo site a significant number of decorated items made from clay, stone, bone, and seashells or snail shells have been collected over the years. Amongst the decorated objects which could be classified as jewellery the majority are bracelets, pendants, and beads made from Spondylus and Glycymeris shells, as well as beads made from Dentalium shells. The appearance of these beads and the question of their origin have not yet been specifically considered within studies of prehistoric cultures in the central Balkans. Furthermore, they have rarely been illustrated and mentioned in archaeological site inventories, which we presume has not been because of their poor representation, but rather because of their being unfamiliar. The aim of this work is therefore to: a) systematize data about Dentalium beads from all phases of excavation of the Belo Brdo site in Vinča; b) to show the importance of this kind of jewellery in the study of resources around the Vinča settlement; and c) to indicate the wider chronological perspective and the significance of studying Dentalium beads within the prehistory of the central Balkans. Dentalium is a carnivorous Scaphopoda sea mollusc, uncommon and insufficiently studied. Representatives of this class of Scaphopoda have been found on Serbian territory in the Badenian sediments, deposited fifteen million years ago. Badenian sediments were discovered around Loznica, Belgrade, Aranđelovac, Golubac, Zaječar, and Negotin. The region of Belgrade and the surrounding area had been covered by a warm, shallow sea of normal salination. On the territory of Belgrade, offsprings of the Badenian sediments, rich in fossils, have been discovered in the city centre (Tašmajdan, Kalemegdan), as well as in many surrounding places (Rakovica, Kaluđerica, Leštani, and Jajinci) (fig. 2). Scaphopod shells found at the Vinča-Belo Brdo archaeological site are usually transversally broken. Judging by the basic appearance of the shells and their ornamentation (longitudinal stripes and rising lines) on better preserved examples (fig. 3: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5) the Fissidentalium badense type is distinct. The ornamentation of the shell is in most cases well preserved, save that in a few examples the longitudinal stripes are broken (fig. 3:22) or the outer surface of the shell has been abraded/dissolved by a physical-chemical agent. Dentalium shells have been used for making jewellery from prehistoric times right up to the present day. The reason for this lies in the regular shape of the shell, which is completely unchanged, or, with a little effort, can be used as one longer or (by breaking it laterally) a larger number of shorter cylindrical beads. On the territory of Serbia today, pre-Neolithic beads have not been known to date. Neither have they been cited in published materials from early-Neolithic to mid-Neolithic Starčevo sites. On the basis of literature, we would say that they appear for the first time in late Neolithic/early Eneolithic times, that is, in the period of the Vinča culture. After that time, it seems that Dentalium beads were mostly used during the Bronze Age, judging from the grave inventories of the necropolis in Mokrin (Moriš culture), where there are findings in around 10% of graves. These are formed from fossilized shells. The beads are usually strung together and were worn around the neck. Usually they were strung in combination with beads and pendants made from other materials (for example teeth, bones, kaolin, stone, bronze etc). Since excavation of the Vinča-Belo Brdo site began in 1908, until 2009, 362 Dentalium beads were found. With the exception of one case, beads were formed from fossilized shells. Most fossilized shells were used by the inhabitants of Belo Brdo in the form in which they were found. Very rarely, traces of workmanship on the edges of beads can be noticed under magnification - carving and polishing (fig. 3: 21), showing that beads were sometimes finished off, probably when natural breaks were not rounded off but were too sharp, or when they the shells were broken to obtain smaller pieces. Beads are located in all levels of Vinča culture settlements, with depths of between ▼0.7-▼9.0 m (fig. 4a). However, at depths of between ▼6.5 and ▼7.3 m, only one bead has been found (at ▼7.0 m) which indicates a reduced interest in Dentalium beads, to the extent of the cessation of their use in the corresponding period. It is not clear whether the beads were worn individually or in a string. Most beads were found individually, but this does not necessarily mean that they were not worn in strings, since these may have been dismantled prior to their deposit. Twenty-nine beads found together indicates that at least some were worn strung (▼8.2 m), as do two pairs of connected beads (with the narrow end of one placed in the wider end of the second bead (fig. 3: 24). Regarding the question of how inhabitants of the Belo Brdo settlement found Dentalium shells, there is no doubt that they were collected in deposits of fossils situated in the wider surroundings of Vinča. The same kind of scaphopod Fissidentalium badense is present among shells used as beads, as well as in Miocene deposits in the area. The taphonomic characteristics of archaeological examples do not differ from samples collected in fossil deposits. It is interesting that inhabitants of the Belo Brdo collected other fossils too, sometimes bringing them to the settlement, but rarely using them for jewellery. Undoubtedly Dentalium shells were accepted as »ready made« beads, but it is also possible that the Dentalia were chosen because they were »in fashion«, since the Belo Brdo inhabitants may have known that they were used in other parts of the pre-historic world