An International Comparison of Equity in Accessibility to Jobs: London, São Paulo, and the Randstad

We analyze the impact of different accessibility measures on the interpretation of associated equity analysis using the Gini coefficient and the (pseudo) Palma ratio, and the impact of the method of assigning zonal accessibility on Gini estimation results using four different alternatives. Two types of potential accessibility measures (zonal and person-based) and two ratios of potential jobs to potential population (intra-modal and multi-modal) are estimated for car and transit in the Netherlands' Randstad region, Greater London, and São Paulo relying on network data, schedule-based data, and speed profiles. Gini results are heavily influenced by the accessibility indicator and the method of assignment. The Palma ratio is also influenced by the choice of accessibility indicator, with the person-based potential accessibility measure tending to show greater inequity

Public and individual transport network models for acessibility studies in São Paulo.

O presente estudo tem como objetivo comparar a eficiência dos sistemas de transporte público e individual através da modelagem de redes em SIG. Foram revisados os conceitos de acessibilidade e indicadores de acessibilidade, modelos de rede de transportes, abordadas as etapas para criação dos modelos de rede, bases de dados utilizadas, configurações e atributos no sistema SIG. Os comparativos foram realizados através de dois níveis de detalhamento (simples e avançado) para as redes de transporte e elaborados índices de acessibilidade para os bairros do município de São Paulo através de parâmetros extraídos das redes modeladas. O estudo de caso consiste na medição de um índice de acessibilidade para empregos de baixa renda. Como resultado, os bairros centrais do município apresentam maior acessibilidade, porém, para o transporte público, alguns bairros fora da zona central também apresentaram alta acessibilidade devido à oferta de transporte público (metrô).This study aims to compare the efficiency of the public and individual transportation systems by modeling networks in GIS environment. The concepts of accessibility, accessibility measures and transportation models were reviewed. The stages for modelling transportation networks, databases, configurations and attributes in the GIS system were specified. The comparison was carried out through two models with different detail levels (simple and advanced). Accessibility indexes were developed for the neighborhoods in the municipality of Sao Paulo using the parameters extracted from the models. The study case consists in calculating the accessibility measure for low income jobs. As a result, the central neighborhoods have greater accessibility, but for the public transportation system, few neighborhoods out of the central zone also shown high accessibility due to the high availability of public transportation (metro)

Spatial dynamic model of job accessibility inequalities.

O acesso ao emprego é objeto de estudo de grande importância na área de transportes. A investigação de como o sistema de transporte pode influenciar o processo de escolha residencial e, consequentemente, como a acessibilidade aos empregos é distribuída para os diversos grupos que compõem a sociedade, é algo que deve ser melhor explorado. Com a evolução da capacidade de processamento de computadores, metodologias de modelagem têm mostrado capacidade de emular sistemas urbanos complexos, envolvendo uso do solo e transportes. Neste contexto, a presente tese visa investigar a dinâmica das desigualdades de acessibilidade aos empregos. Para investigar os processos que levam as desigualdades de acessibilidade aos empregos, foi proposto um modelo baseado em agentes, implementado em plataforma aberta, para representar, de forma simplificada, o comportamento humano na escolha residencial através de variáveis de status da vizinhança e acessibilidade aos empregos. Foram realizados estudos de caso em São Paulo e Curitiba, municípios localizados em um país em desenvolvimento, e em Melbourne (Austrália), localizado em um país desenvolvido, para avaliar a robustez do modelo na representação da realidade de diferentes áreas de estudo. Os resultados mostram que o modelo permitiu representar a realidade das diferentes áreas de estudo, sendo as áreas localizadas no Brasil retratadas com maior fidedignidade. O modelo também possibilitou simular diferentes cenários de oferta de transporte, emprego e habitação para o município de São Paulo. Foi observado que o cenário de maior redução das desigualdades de acessibilidade foi o que envolveu um aumento da oferta de transporte público, empregos e habitações de interesse social em áreas de alta acessibilidade aos empregos. O modelo também permitiu retratar pequenas alterações temporais ocorridas em São Paulo no período de 2007 a 2017, refletidas na parametrização do modelo. O presente trabalho busca alimentar o debate sobre as desigualdades de acessibilidade aos empregos e gerar ideias sobre políticas públicas para reduzí-las.Access to employment is an important object of study in the area of transport. An investigation on how the transport system can influence the residential location choice process and, consequently, how job accessibility is distributed according to different social groups should be better explored. The evolution in computer processing capacity allowed modeling methodologies to simulate complex urban systems, including land use and transport systems. In this context, this thesis aims to investigate the dynamics of the job accessibility inequalities. In order to investigate the processes that lead to job accessibility inequalities, an agent-based model was proposed to reproduce, in a simplified way using open source platform, the residential location choice process considering neighborhood status and job accessibility variables. Case studies were carried out in São Paulo and Curitiba, located in a developing country, and in Melbourne (Australia), located in a developed country, to evaluate the robustness of the model in representing the reality of the different areas of study. The results show that the model allowed to represent the reality of the different areas of study, with the areas located in Brazil represented with greater reliability. The model also made it possible to simulate different scenarios of transport, employment and housing supply for the municipality of São Paulo. It was observed that the scenario of greater reduction in job accessibility inequalities was the one that involved an increase in the supply of public transport, employment and social housing in areas with high job accessibility. The model also allowed to represent minor temporal changes that occurred in São Paulo in the period from 2007 to 2017, reflected in the parameterization of the model. The present work seeks to create insights into inequalities in access to jobs and to feed the debate on how public policies can alleviate inequalities

The bias in estimating accessibility inequalities using gravity-based metrics

Accessibility measures have been extensively used to explore the outcomes of the spatial distribution of transport, jobs, and population groups in cities. Despite its wide use, identifying the population groups that most benefit from accessibility is not straightforward and different metrics might result in different conclusions. The present work aims to analyze the potential bias of using gravity-based measures based on revealed mobilities to identify job accessibility inequalities. By looking at two large and very different regions, the municipality of São Paulo (SP) and the Greater London Area (GLA), we argue that distance decay functions built from current trip behaviors should be carefully used in evaluations of accessibility inequalities because it may underestimate disparities between socio-occupational groups and also result in a misleading interpretation of impedance factors. Two distinct approaches were implemented to support those claims. We first estimate group-specific distance decay functions, considering only travel time. Secondly, we consider both travel time and travel cost relative to income to estimate zone-specific and city-specific distance decay functions for each one of the study areas. The population of both cases studies was stratified according to the NS-SEC standard to select the highest and the lowest socio-occupational groups and to explore job accessibility inequalities. It was found that higher-level and lower-level socio-occupational groups of SP and GLA present striking differences in terms of travel times and relative travel costs, with SP being more unequal. By applying the distance decay function of the lowest level socio-occupational group to the calculations of the job accessibility of the highest level group, and by adding travel cost to the analysis, we highlight inconsistencies between gravity-based accessibility calculations and theory, as trips taken by different groups can be mistakenly associated with willingness to travel. From a policy perspective, our findings emphasize that accessibility inequalities in large urban centers, especially in the Global South, can be underestimated if revealed mobilities are considered to represent the willingness to travel and by not taking into account the relative cost of travel

Potential impacts of bike-and-ride on job accessibility and spatial equity in São Paulo, Brazil.

This paper examines the potential of the bicycle, as an access mode for transit trips, to reduce spatiotemporal inequalities in job accessibility in the megacity of São Paulo, Brazil. Three temporally dynamic potential job accessibility models are developed, (i) a GTFS-based (General |Transit Feed Specification) walk-and-ride model, (ii) an integrated GTFS-based bike-and-ride model that incorporates topography constraints, the availability of dedicated cycling infrastructure, waiting times at intersections and car traffic levels, and (iii) a car model that accounts for congestion using TomTom speed profiles. Cluster analysis is then used to analyze the geographic distribution of the associated improvements. The results show that bike-and-ride has the potential to substantially increase job accessibility in the different areas of the city, but does not result in a more equal spatial distribution of job accessibility, as measured by Gini coefficients. Most of the improvements are centered in middle to high income areas with good accessibility. Peripheral areas, that tend to be the poorest and have the lowest accessibility by transit, improve the least. The inclusion of the bicycle is not enough to counteract all of the other forces causing low job accessibility in these areas

Comparação entre diferentes escalas de mapeamento de APP de Topo de Morro

The aim of this study was compare results of maps permanent preservation areas (PPA) of hill´s peak, in two different scales, following the Sao Paulo state´s legislation. The study area is located in the middle of Mairinque municipally, in São Paulo State. We used two different plan-altimetric data, one from Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE) and other from Geographic and Cartographic Institute (IGC), both digitalized by IMAGEM Company. The data from IBGE is in a 1:50,000 scale, while the data from IGC is in a 1:10,000 scale. The hypothesis of this study suggests that the area of PPA in 1:10,000 scale is greater than in 1:50,000 scale. We verified that differences between the two data can be identified in the basic data process like contour lines and in the Digital Terrain Model (DTM). Analyzing the terrain features profile in both scales, we verified one peak in 1:50.000 scale and two peaks in 1:10.000 scales. The shortest peak in IGC data is a peak´s shoulder in IBGE data. This feature difference promoted different contour lines when we calculated the PPA following the method described in the law. Analyzing the results we showed that using different scales to map permanent preservation areas in Sao Paulo State the hills feature will be different like the area calculated.Pages: 1614-161

Satisfaction with travel, ideal commuting, and accessibility to employment

This paper explores relationships between commuting times, job accessibility, and commuting satisfaction based on a large-scale survey applied in the Greater London Area (GLA), the municipality of São Paulo (MSP) and the Dutch Randstad (NLR). Potential accessibility to jobs is estimated under 3 different scenarios: reported actual commuting times (ACT), ideal commuting times (ICT), and maximum willingness to commute (MCT). In addition, binary logistic regression models, estimated using generalized linear modeling (GLM), are performed to assess the impact of these temporal preferences on the likelihood of being satisfied with commuting. As expected, ideal and maximum commuting preferences strongly impact the volume and spatial distribution of the measured accessibility to jobs. In the selected case studies, estimated ICT-based job accessibility significantly decreases total measured accessibility (60 to 100 percent), with those living in the lowest accessibility zones impacted most. Furthermore, although specific results varied between regions, the overall findings show an association between ACT and satisfaction. Likewise, commuting mode is found to be a strong predictor of travel satisfaction. Those actively traveling in all three metropolitan regions tend to be more satisfied with their commutes. Potential job accessibility is found to be only weakly associated with travel satisfaction